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In most cases symptoms xxy buy accupril 10 mg low cost, the toxic effects causing greatest concern are those Experimental studies are often conducted using that are most severe treatment jaundice order cheap accupril online, occur at lowest exposures medications kidney damage 10mg accupril visa, relatively high doses of a chemical to increase the and persist after exposure ceases medications similar to vyvanse order accupril with paypal. Determination of environmental concentra Dose-Response Curve tions and means of human exposure, route of entry, Percent responding site of the exposed population, and uncertainties in exposure estimates are important factors in exposure assessment. The degree of exposure to some toxic Ii I Effects, but biological “ substances is strongly influenced by occupation. For relevance unknown example, industrial workers may be exposed to high concentrations of some chemicals that the public may encounter at much lower levels. Duration refers to the period of time over which Adverse effects individuals are exposed. An acute exposure is I generally a single exposure that occurs over a short period of time. Chronic and subchronic exposures may be episodic (occurring at various intervals) or continu ous (occurring over extended periods). Human exposures tend to be in low doses, where responses are not generally directly observa the pattern of exposure-the dose, duration, ble. Therefore, in moving from laboratory exposures frequency, and route—is an important determinant to human exposures, it is usually necessary to of risk. Other concerns include knowledge of the extrapolate from high dose-responses to low dose age, sex, health status, and presence or absence of responses. Extrapolations are also necessary to other environmental exposures for a given popula adjust for differences between animals and humans tion. Obtaining such information requires a compre with regard to conditions of exposure and certain hensive monitoring program; however, data of this physiological factors, such as size, lifespan, metabo kind for a given toxic substance are often not lism, brain maturation rate, and absorption. Some of these extrapolations and the final step of risk assessment combines the adjustments take the form of safety factors; these are results of hazard identification, dose-response as discussed in more detail in the risk characterization sessment, and exposure assessment to produce a section of this chapter. At the present time, risk of the extent and nature of human exposure (includ characterization for noncarcinogenic forms of ing source, route, dose, and duration). The experience unusual exposures is also appropriate l RfD (also called the acceptable daily intake) is used (15). If exposures exceed the RfD, it is routes, including ingestion, inhalation, or contact assumed a significant risk exists. Generally, no Chapter 6-Assessing and Managing Risk q 149 attempt is made to describe the magnitude of the Figure 6-3-Use of Safety Factors in Deriving a risk. Reference Dose Animal Dose-Response Data Three safety factors are commonly used to de velop an RfD. This safety factor is applied in order to protect sensitive members of the population when data have been 1 Divide by 10 obtained from average, healthy persons. To develop a chronic RfD when only subchronic animal studies Divide by 10 are available, another factor of 10 is added, for a total (for animal to human extrapolation) safety factor of 1,000. The magnitude of the safety factor employed can vary from chemical to Divide by 10 chemical. This margin is sometimes compared with the safety factors mentioned above in the purpose of risk management is to determine order to judge its adequacy. Risk management depends They use the safety factor approach in circumstances on information derived from the risk assessment, but where guidelines or regulations specify maximum it may also depend on political, social, ethical, allowable or safe exposure limits (3). Instead, various extrapolation models are Different risk management approaches are taken by applied to develop estimates of risk (typically, the different regulatory agencies, depending largely on probability of developing cancer over a lifetime) the kind of exposure being evaluated and the associated with various levels of exposure. The three most com little scientific literature on the application of this mon risk management approaches mandated by the type of extrapolation to noncarcinogenic effects. The uncertainties and assumptions inherent in takes into account only the level of risk that is any risk assessment should also be stated. How information is as essential as the quantitative de ever, the risk balancing approach may consider 150. Neurotoxicity: Identifying and Controlling Poisons of the Nervous System social, economic, and technological factors as well. Risk assessment strategies were originally devel this approach involves developing a consensus oped for evaluating carcinogens, which have often among interest groups and making trade-offs for the been viewed as exerting “all-or-none” effects public well-being. The third risk management ap (although this view is changing for some carcino proach, technological control, involves reducing gens). Neurotoxic substances differ from carcino risk by applying the best available, most feasible gens in that adverse effects are strongly dependent technologies. In have been discussed extensively in various Federal most of these cases, and in many specific regulatory and State regulations and guidance documents (see, applications, the RfD approach to risk characteriza. A representative sampling of the active in developing risk assessment guidelines (1 2). As mentioned above, focus on histopathologica1 analyses, as opposed to some basis has been found for development of examinations of functional effects. Lead is regulated explicit descriptions of noncarcinogenic risk, and because of its neurotoxic properties, especially most of the guidance documents mentioned above prenatally and in early life, and its effects on the deal with this issue. Principal emphasis was placed Chapter 6-Assessing and Managing Risk q 151 ceutical industry, where neurotoxic effects some times limit the dose (10). To date, there have been few instances in which neurotoxicity was the principal basis for regulation. First, toxicity tests currently used by regulatory agencies are generally not specifically designed to identify neurotoxic agents. Histopathological analyses may identify some neurotoxic agents, but pathological analyses alone are of limited use in identifying adverse effects on the function of the nervous system (e. Second, the risk assess ment methodologies currently in use for carcino genesis assume the absence of a threshold, whereas those used for other toxic effects assume a threshold. The practical consequence of this dichotomous system is that whenever a toxic agent exhibits both carcinogenic and other-than-carcinogenic effects, concerns about the carcinogenic risks tend to over ride concerns about other risks that may be associ ated with the agent at low doses. As indicated earlier, however, these assumptions regarding thresholds for carcinogenic and other toxic chemicals are the subject of debate. Third, in some cases other, noncancer health effects may occur at lower levels than neurotoxic effects, and regulations may have been based on these concerns. Conse quently, it is important to devise risk assessment In determining the bases for the occupational strategies to address noncancer health risks. Other factors that complicate used for neurotoxicity risk assessment in diverse risk assessment of neurotoxic substances include the circumstances. Functional Capacity With Age and Exposure to Neurotoxic Substances An important difference between neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity is the extent to which the effects are reversible. Consequently, it has been proposed Chronological age that it may be useful to specify a reversible effect the heavy line (top) shows the rate posited to occur without added level (27). Weiss and W, Simon, “Quantitative Perspectives on the could appear to give rise to a short-term, reversible Long-Term Toxicity of Methyl Mercury and Similar Poisons,” effect, but later in life an irreversible effect (e. The age at which neurotoxic effects are evaluated tween decline in functional capacity and the impact can strongly influence the outcome of a risk analysis. For example, mice exposed to methylmercury dur ing prenatal development may not exhibit adverse Issues in Hazard Identification effects until late in their lives (23). Similarly, humans exposed to a toxic substance early in life Neurotoxicological assessment of environmental may not suffer adverse effects until decades later. Although hazard identification declines significantly, and chronic exposure to some through general toxicity testing (described inch. As indicated in the hypothetical properties, substances producing more subtle effects example in figure 6-4, a small acceleration in the loss are generally not detected. For example, in this model, the battery of more sophisticated neurotoxicity tests in postulated functional capacity of the brain that has its regulatory requirements (see ch. As figure 6-4 suggests, an before being adopted for routine use in hazard acceleration of 1. Chapter 6-Assessing and Managing Risk q 153 Issues in Dose-Response Assessment Thresholds and the RfD Approach-Toxic agents are conventionally classified into two groups: those that exert adverse effects only after a threshold dose is exceeded and those that theoretically increase risk at all doses greater than zero (no-threshold agents). This classification system, which has important consequences for risk assessment, has the practical effect of grouping all carcinogens into the no threshold category and all other forms of toxicity into the threshold category. As indicated earlier, there is uncertainty about whether all carcinogens belong in the no-threshold group and all noncarcino gens, including neurotoxic agents, belong in the threshold group (19). One consequence of this dichotomous system is that different models for risk assessment are used for the two groups. The model used for carcinogens yields zero risk (zero probability of cological effects. However, the use of such factors effect would be likely to occur at exposures at or creates an uncertainty in itself.
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