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Bormann before joining the Nazi’s had worked for Hermann von Treuenlels as a foreman on a farm pregnancy day by day calendar cheap 0.625 mg premarin amex. He also gave the orders for thugs to menopause foggy brain purchase premarin 0.625mg amex beat up a man named Walter Kadow women's health center vassar purchase premarin 0.625 mg on line, who died while being beaten menstrual journal buy discount premarin 0.625 mg on line. During 1932, the Nazi Party had offended many people and had lost greatly in the elections. Many of their big financial supporters had backed away and it looked like 2 the party was going to shrivel up and die. Gustav Krupp threw his momentous influence and big money (100,000,000 German Marks) into saving the Nazi party from their precarious position. Gustav Krupp was perhaps the most powerful industrialist in Germany with perhaps the best steel factories in the world, and the weight of his help pulled the Nazi party up on its feet and to victory that year. When Krupp made his big financial contribution, Hitler assigned Bormann to keep track of all the money. From then on, Hitler’s personal finances and some of the party’s finances were totally controlled and oversaw by Martin Bormann, a member of the Illuminati. I say Gustav Krupp was "perhaps the most powerful industrialist"-only because I don’t know anyone who knows how big Gustav Krupp was financially. Gustav Krupp was the sole owner, that is the sole proprietor of all his companies-there were no shareholders. Gustav Krupp owned a vast array of corporations and companies and properties all over the world. No one knows how much he owned, but he owned enough that his son who was the sole inheritor of all the Krupp fortune was able to have his factories totally destroyed by the allies in W. The documentation that Krupp began planning and secretly rebuilding German armaments in preparation for W. On May 11, 1921, (;erman Chancellor Wirth, the leader of the German government signed the Versailles Treaty pledging disarmament. At the very same time he was fully cooperating with the Krupps and the military to rearm Germany secretly. Wirth was very adept at intrigue, and be and Krupp carried out international intrigue all over the world to pull off their secret military buildup. Hitler greeted Alfred with a great welcome and then let him talk to Martin Bormann. Alfred and Bormaun talked, and then Bormann directed Hans Lammers, the Nazi constitutional oracle to secretly proclaim: "The firm of Fried. Krupp, a family enterprise for 132 years, deserves the highest recognition for its incomparable performances in boosting the military power of Germany. Gustav was declared unfit healthwise for trial, and Alfred was given very lenient treatment. Other Nazis put on trial were sentenced to death with less evidence and less crimes than Alfred. When the war ended, old man Gustav was at Bluembach Castle which is located at a remote site in the Austrian Alps. The American officer who captured the castle was Chip Bohlen’s brother-in-law Col. Thayer (in other words a relative to Gustav Krupp), who made sure the American troops did not loot the castle. This is a very strange coincidence, that of the millions of allied troops, a relative of the Krupps is the one to capture Gustav Krupp’s castle. Thayer knew what Bluenbach Castle was all about before he took off with his men to find it. The four-storied ivy covered castle has a pink granite driveway, and a beautiful and luxurious interior. Even if a visitor gets to the main gate which is remote enough, there is still a long 3 trip to the castle. One of the snow-covered mountains surrounding the postcard perfect castle has the legendary cave of Barbarosa, who is said to be asleep waiting to be woken by black ravens to come back to life and save Germany. The Illuminati’s controlled media portrayed Gustav’s son Alfred as a victim of the Nuremberg trials, even though mountains of documents prove that he was more of a war criminal than Adolf Hitler. The massive trial documents of the Nuremberg trial of Alfred Krupp were never printed in Germany, and even today the truth about Krupp is unknown. History was rewritten by the controlled presses to make Alfred Krupp out to be the victim of Nazism, rather that to tell the truth about how he ran the Krupp empire beginning in 1943, and was actively involved in the rape & pillage of many nations, and actively involved in the torture of countless slave laborers who came from nations all over the world (anybody the Nazis found to arrest. Hitler had made a law that slaves were to be fed so much per day according to how hard the work was that they had to do. There was an acute shortage of slaves to work and drastic needs for tanks, ships, artillery, subs and other Krupp produced weapons, so there was no logical reason for Krupp’s personal factory guards to starve and beat slaves to death on a regular manner. The horrendous abuse that the slaves received actually often prevented the Krupp factories from being successful in their production goals. Slaves are generally fed and taken care of so they can work, but Krupp’s slaves were not even given the basics that a slave gets-they were less than slaves, or as one slave who worked for Krupp said that as Krupp’s slaves they didn’t even have the status of "slave" but were like pieces of sandpaper to be used and discarded. Krupp’s slaves were the worst treated in Germany and frequently failed to achieve the production that was wanted due to the total dehumanization and horrible abuse systematically heaped upon them. Slaves were tortured in the basement of Krupp’s Hauptverwaltungsgebaude (the executive corporation office building in Essen). Unimpeachable witnesses declared that some of the most revolting torture of slaves occurred within earshot of Alfred Krupps office. The secretaries who worked with Krupp could hear the screams of people being tortured, and there is no doubt if they could hear them, Alfred could too, but he always ignored the screams with a stone-like face, as he did later in Satanic rituals. McCloy, head of the Council of Foreign Relations, and a member of the Illuminati, was given the job of High Commissioner over Occupied Germany. He overturned the Nuremberg Trial decisions, stepping out of line with legalities and freed Alfred Krupp from prison and exonerated him of "war guilt". Alfred had 37 of the best lawyers who had given more than a good fight for Alfred. They pulled every trick in the book for their client-including murdering witnesses, suppressing evidence etc. Nothing could be further from the truth-he was the best defended Nuremberg criminal. This was more than fair considering all the pillage and looting Krupp had personally directed throughout Europe. The British and American governments never carried out the Judges orders to take Alfred’s property away, and after serving awhile (having a vacation from his work load) in prison, the Illuminati set him free from prison. Alfred was made out to be martyr in the press-they claimed he was the only Nazi who had property confiscated (which was a lie by the press), so that it looked like he’d been singled out for special victimization by the Nuremberg court. While looking to the public like a victim for loosing his property-none of it was ever taken away!. Today, the intrigue of the Illuminati to secretly prepare for their takeover is monumental in proportions. I, the Krupps created a Dutch company in Hague with the English name Blessing and Company. I, it was sold with all its assets to the Hollandsche Industrie en Handel Maatschappij (another Dutch front), and then its name was changed to Siderius A. It was then used as a holding company for 3 Dutch 4 shipyards, their names being Piet Smit in Rotterdam, Maschinen en Apparaten Fabrik in Utrecht, and Ingenieur-Kantoor voor Scheepsbouw in the Hague. In this way, a front company was created that no one even suspected of being a Krupp company. Later, select Dutchmen were sold the shares of the company that the Krupp directors had had. By the time allied intelligence in 1926 caught on and asked the Dutch government to intervene, Queen Wilhelmina of Holland curtly informed allied intelligence that her govt. When one studies the machinations George Bush and Bill & Hillary Clinton, they too have worked with front companies. Three examples of Illuminati families with a great deal of power but who have their extensive financial holdings obscured are the Payseurs, the Springs, and the Van Duyns. The national media of America have continually run expert damage control for George Bush and Bill & Hillary Clinton. The Whitewater scandal, Vincent Foster and the Waco incident should have sunk the Chintons but the media has run excellent propaganda campaigns that have stood the truth on its head. Under the appearance of doing unbiased investigations, the New World Order’s media has really done sophisticated damage control.
If you don’t immediately see the bookmarks menopause yoga purchase premarin 0.625 mg, right click on the gray area next to menstruation at age 5 purchase 0.625 mg premarin with visa the document and select Page Display Preferences pregnancy cravings buy genuine premarin on line. Adolescent dentition – the dentition that is including anatomical and functional present after the normal loss of primary relationships breast cancer organization buy 0.625mg premarin free shipping. Craniofacial anomalies – Abnormalities of the head and face, either congenital or Adult – For the general purposes of the acquired, involving disruption of the agency’s dental program, means a client age dentition and supporting structures. These teams are responsible for the management (review, evaluation, and Child – For the general purposes of the approval) of patients with cleft palate agency’s dental program, means a client age craniofacial anomalies to provide integrated 20 and younger. This creates an abnormality of treatment – Using fixed orthodontic the upper and lower jaw, ear, and associated appliances for treatment of the permanent structures (half or part of the face appears dentition leading to the improvement of a smaller sized). Such treatment may Transitional dentition – the final phase of occur in the primary or transitional dentition the transition from primary to adult teeth, in and may include such procedures as the which the deciduous molars and canines are redirection of ectopically erupting teeth, in the process of shedding and the correction of isolated dental cross-bite, or permanent successors are emerging. It may be directed only at the existing problem, or at only one aspect of a larger problem in which a decision is made to defer or forego more comprehensive therapy. For detailed instructions on verifying a patient’s eligibility for Washington Apple Health, see the Client Eligibility, Benefit Packages, and Coverage Limits section in the agency’s current ProviderOne Billing and Resource Guide. Note: Patients who wish to apply for Washington Apple Health can do so in one of the following ways: 1. To get information about in person application assistance available in their area, people may visit. If treatment is discontinued before completion, clear documentation must be kept in the client’s file about why treatment was not completed. What orthodontic treatment and orthodontic related services are not covered by the agency. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D0160 Detailed and No Includes orthodontic oral examination, extensive oral taking and processing clinical evaluation – photographs, completing required orthodontic form(s) and obtaining the agency’s only authorization decision. Allowed once per client, per billing provider Online Fee D0170 Re-evaluation – No Not allowed in combination with Schedules limited, periodic/limited/comprehensive oral problem evaluations. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D0330 Panoramic film – Yes Included in case study. Cephalometric films are not required when submitting prior authorization requests for orthodontic services. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8220 Fixed appliance Yes Considered for a Thumb Crib therapy D8680 Appliance Yes Use this code for a client whose removal if placed appliance was placed by an orthodontic Online Fee by non-Medicaid provider not participating with the Schedules provider agency, and/or whose treatment was previously covered by another third party payer. Includes preparation of comprehensive diagnostic records (additional photos, study casts, cephalometric examination film, and panoramic film), formation of diagnosis and treatment plan from such records, and formal case conference. Treating provider must be an orthodontist and either be a member of a recognized craniofacial team or approved by the agency’s Dental Consultant to provide this service. See the agency’s Program Policy Approved Diagnosis Codes for Orthodontic Services. Note: To receive reimbursement for each subsequent three-month period: the provider must examine the client in the provider’s office at least once during the three-month period. The cleft palate maximum allowance includes all professional fees, laboratory costs, and required follow-up. Treating provider must be an orthodontist and be either a member of a recognized craniofacial team or approved by the agency’s Dental Consultant to provide this service. Treating provider must be an orthodontist and be either a member of a recognized craniofacial team or approved by the agency’s Dental Consultant to provide this Online Fee service. Schedules Note: To receive reimbursement for each subsequent three-month period: the provider must examine the client in the provider’s office at least once during the three-month period, with the first three-month interval beginning six months after the initial appliance placement. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8660 Severe Yes Use this code for Orthodontist Case Study. Online Fee malocclusion Billable only by the treating orthodontic Schedules pre-orthodontic provider. Includes preparation of visit comprehensive diagnostic records (additional photos, study casts, cephalometric examination film, and panoramic film), formation of diagnosis and treatment plan from such records, and formal case conference. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8030 Limited Yes this reimbursement is for the initial Online Fee orthodontic placement when the appliance placement Schedules treatment of date and the date of service are the same. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8030 Limited Yes this reimbursement is for each subsequent Online Fee orthodontic three-month period when the appliance Schedules treatment of the placement date and the date of service are adolescent the different. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8060 Interceptive Yes the maximum allowance includes all Online Fee orthodontic professional fees, laboratory costs, and Schedules treatment of the required follow-up. Allowable Code Requirements Fee D8080 Comprehensive Yes this reimbursement is for the initial orthodontic placement when the appliance placement date treatment of the and the date of service are the same. What orthodontic treatment and orthodontic related services require authorization. If prior authorization is required, it must be received from the agency before the service is provided. Authorization is based on the establishment of medical necessity as determined by the agency on a case-by-case basis. All information pertaining to medical necessity must come from the client’s prescribing orthodontist. Measurement, counting, recording, or consideration for treatment is performed only on teeth that have erupted and can be seen on the diagnostic study models. All measurements are made or judged on the basis equal to, or greater than the minimum requirement. Only permanent natural teeth will be considered for full orthodontic treatment of severe malocclusions. Use either of the upper central incisors when measuring overjet, overbite (including reverse overbite), mandibular protrusion, and open bite. The upper lateral incisors or upper canines may not be used for these measurements. A single impacted tooth alone is not considered a severe handicapping malocclusion. For information regarding submitting prior authorization requests to the agency, see the agency’s ProviderOne Billing and Resource Guide. When mailing, indicate the provider’s name, authorization reference #, and the word “orthodontics” on the box. Submit the following full set of eight dental color photographs to the agency: a) Intraoral dental photographs: 1) Front view (teeth in centric occlusion) 2) Right lateral (teeth in centric occlusion) 3) Left lateral (teeth in centric occlusion) 4) Upper occlusal view (taken using a mirror/retractor to include second molars) 5) Lower occlusal view (taken using a mirror/retractor to include second molars) b) Extraoral dental photographs: 1) Front, full-face view 2) Front, full-face smiling 3) Profile, full-face view, facing to the right Note: All photos are to be printed on one sheet of 8. Position the photos on the page as follows: Top row: facial views Middle row: occlusal views with information about the client and provider between the two photos Bottom row: three-teeth-together views To match the orientation of the occlusal views to the client’s left and right side of their face: Print the right-side view on the left of the sheet. This format follows requirements of the American Board of Orthodontics and the Orthodontic departments at the universities of Oregon and Washington. The agency’s decision will be delivered through ProviderOne-generated correspondence. If your request for orthodontic treatment is not approved based on your initial submission, submit only the information requested by the agency for re-evaluation. The provider must bill the agency with the date of service that the initial appliance is placed. Treatment provided after thirty months from the date the appliance is placed requires a limitation extension. These billing requirements include, but are not limited to: Time limits for submitting and resubmitting claims and adjustments. Does the agency pay for orthodontic treatment beyond the client’s eligibility period. The client is responsible for payment of any orthodontic service or treatment received during any period of ineligibility, even if the treatment was started when the client was eligible. The agency will pro-rate payment for the timeframe a client was eligible for orthodontic services if the client becomes ineligible during the three-month treatment sequence. Note: You must correctly indicate the appliance date on all orthodontic treatment claims. Payment for orthodontic treatment and orthodontic-related services is based on the agency’s published fee schedule. The maximum allowable cost includes all professional fees, laboratory costs, and required follow-up.
Return to womens health magazine customer service effective 0.625mg premarin work following vocational rehabilitation for neck breast cancer grades order premarin uk, back and shoulder problems: risk factors reviewed 2002) Musculoskeletal problems were defned as neck women's health center rockford il purchase premarin 0.625 mg mastercard, back and shoulder problems menstruation 21 days premarin 0.625 mg mastercard. Authors considered that high-quality studies now support the hypothesis that multidisciplinary treatment is more efective than single-mode treatment regarding return to work. Involvement of client/patient in vocational review rehabilitation seen as important. A vocational rehabilitation counsellor to guide client through system may be helpful, but depends on competences. A great number of demographic, psychological, social, medical, rehabilitation-related, workplace-related and beneft-system related factors are associated with return to work. People with greater chances of job return after vocational rehabilitation are younger, native, highly educated, have a steady job and high income, are married and have stable social networks, are self-confdent, happy with life, not depressed, have low level of disease severity and no pain, high work seniority, long working history and an employer that cares and wishes them back to the work place. Unfortunately, people with the above profle are seldom found among the long-term sick. Signifcant prognostic factors included low workplace support, personal stress, shorter job tenure, prior episodes, heavier occupations with no modifed duty, delayed reporting, severity of pain and functional impact, radicular fndings and extreme symptom report. Physicians can decrease occupational low back pain disability by using standardized questionnaires, improving communication with patients and employers, specifying return to work accommodations, and employing behavioural approaches to pain and disability management. Review examines several review interventions aimed at physical work environment, modifed duty, educational and exercise approaches, case management, and programmes for supervisors. Integrating care and facilitating communication among workers, health-care providers and the workplace emerge as salient features. As a whole the evidence shows that there is considerable potential to reduce disability and longer-term problems associated with work related musculoskeletal pain. Eforts to reduce ergonomic risk factors, to enhance education and ftness, and to infuence case managers and supervisors provide opportunities for efective secondary prevention. Integrating care and facilitating communication among workers, health care providers and the workplace emerge as particularly salient. From 17 review articles (2000–2005), disability risk factors and interventions were cross-tabulated to assess levels of relative concordance. Review of reviews Potentially modifable risk factors included 23 variables describing 3 workplace and 3 personal domains. Three intervention clusters that were most highly supported by risk factor evidence were: workplace technical and organizational interventions, graded activity exposure, and cognitive restructuring of pain beliefs. Experimental interventions within each of these areas have continued to evolve, with many studies showing meaningful reductions in lost work time. Efective interventions included 25 strategies that were personal (physical or behavioural), engineering, or administrative in nature. There was a strong risk factor concordance for workplace technical and organizational interventions, graded activity exposure, and cognitive restructuring of pain beliefs. Few interventions focused on relieving emotional distress or improving job dissatisfaction, two well-supported risk factors. If risk factors are indeed causal mechanisms in the development of chronic pain and disability, then reduction of these factors should lead to improved health and work outcomes. If, on the other hand, these variables are merely risk markers and are confounded by other causal factors, then interventions may appear to be successful without a commensurate reduction in risk factors. All but two studies (of traumatic brain injury) focused on musculoskeletal conditions or work injuries. The key ingredient missing from the clinics was any meaningful tie to the workplace, or even a legitimisation of clinics’ role in helping Narrative review to negotiate modifed work. Concept of early intervention is variable both temporally and with regard to type of care provided. Appropriately matching interventions with stage in recovery is an approach that may prove more efective. Then 13 independent and blinded reviewers were asked to participate in review selection, quality assessment, and data extraction. The authors reported that 104 systematic reviews were selected, of which 45 were considered to be ‘reasonable or good quality’. The reviewers concluded that exercise therapy is efective for patients with knee osteoarthritis, sub-acute (6 to 12 weeks) and chronic (12 weeks) low back pain. Furthermore, there are indications that exercise therapy is efective for patients with ankylosing spondylitis and hip osteoarthritis. However, they found there is currently insufcient evidence to support or refute the efectiveness of exercise therapy for patients with neck pain, shoulder pain, repetitive strain injury, and rheumatoid arthritis. They also concluded that exercise therapy is not efective for patients with acute low back pain. The assessment recommendations consisted of diagnostic triage, screening for ‘red fags’ and neurological problems, and the review identifcation of potential psychosocial and workplace barriers for recovery. The guidelines also agreed on advice that low back pain is a self limiting condition and, importantly, that remaining at work or an early (graduated) return to work, if necessary with modifed duties, should be encouraged and supported. However, in cases of occupational low back pain, it is often a physical incident or activity that is blamed for the precipitation of back pain or sciatica and held responsible for damaging spinal structures. Treatment confdence and patients’ expectations also signifcantly infuence outcomes of physical exercise interventions. Timing is also important; interventions targeting return to work, applied during the acute phase of work absenteeism, compete with a high rate of spontaneous recovery and may therefore be inefcient. Authors consider staying active and increasing the level of physical activity are safe, despite increased loading of spine structures. Integrating psychosocial and behavioural interventions to achieve optimal rehabilitation outcomes 2005) Selective review of scientifc literature on psychosocial and behavioural interventions and work disability. Most prior interventions focused on psychosocial risk factors that exist primarily within the individual. Successful disability Narrative review prevention (translates into earlier return to work) will require methods to assess and target psychosocial risk factors ‘outside’ of the individual. Cognitive behavioural approaches have dominated intervention research on psychosocial risk factors for work disability. The term cognitive-behavioural does not refer to a specifc intervention, but rather to a class of intervention strategies that might include self-instruction, relaxation, developing coping strategies, increasing assertiveness, minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts, changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and goal setting. Intervening with cognitive behavioural principles is not confned to psychologists: increasing front-line rehabilitation professionals’ ability to detect and intervene on psychosocial risk factors can facilitate early implementation of risk factor targeted interventions, whilst integrating the same principles into community/public health programmes or the workplace can be efective. Challenges to efective secondary prevention of work disability include developing competencies to enable a range of providers to deliver interventions, standardization of psychosocial interventions, and maximizing adherence to intervention protocols. Temporary workplace advice on accommodations and tolerance should focus on an early return to work and improve the outcome for work-related injuries, and advance the patients’ quality of life. Emerging data suggest that the majority of patients can continue to work with certain parameters, and will need aggressive control of disease activity and pain, along with appropriate workplace adaptations. Low back pain interventions at the workplace: a systematic literature review 2004) the aim of this review was to assess if controlled workplace interventions have a positive efect on low back pain, and which interventions are most efective. Systematic • Educational interventions (mostly back schools/lifting training): No evidence of efect on sick leave; no evidence of any efect on costs. The long-term efect of multidisciplinary back training: a systematic review 2007) To determine the long-term efect of multidisciplinary back training on the work participation of patients with nonspecifc chronic low back pain. All 5 high-quality studies found a positive efect on at least one of the 4 outcome measures used. Systematic the various studies used diferent elements in their multidisciplinary training programs. Based on our criteria, efectiveness was found for the review outcome measures of work participation and quality of life. The interventions ranged from 4 elements (physical, educational, psychological, and social) to 2 elements (physical and educational or psychological). The duration and intensity of the treatments ranged from 2 hours to 35 hours a week. The intensity of the intervention seems to have no substantial infuence on the efectiveness of the intervention. In the long-term, multidisciplinary back training has a positive efect on work participation in patients with nonspecifc chronic low back pain. Recent epidemiological Narrative review data suggest that there is a need to revise our views regarding the course of low back pain.
Indeed breast cancer vaccine purchase premarin 0.625 mg with mastercard, when the Robie House was operated by the Chicago Theological Seminary between 1926 and 1963 menopause 2014 order premarin on line amex, it was used as a dormitory and dining hall menstrual zimbabwe discount premarin 0.625 mg. Assume also that you know that the guide is not looking at the other menstrual dysphoria buy premarin with a visa, unattractive building you just saw. One possiblity is that you interpret “This building used to be a dormitory,” by considering your knowledge of what the guide is focused on, the topic, and so on. In other words, you would assume that the phrase has been optimally designed with respect to mutual knowledge. This information would immediately lead you to the conclusion that the guide is referring to the Robie House. Instead of restricting your interpretation to what you know about the perspective of the speaker, your initial interpretation is anchored egocentrically – that is, in information available to you. This would lead you to identify quickly the unattractive building you were looking at as the intended referent of the guide’s utterance, “This building used to be a dormitory. In general, then, the theory suggests a systematically egocentric error pattern, although the error might sometimes only be momentary. Such an interpretation error would occur whenever available, egocentric information suggests a different interpretation than the shared perspective. To test between these two alternatives, Keysar, Barr, Balin, and Paek (1998) created a situation analogous to the Robie House case, except the participants in the experiment conversed about pictures of objects such as buildings, not the objects themselves. Unknown to the participants, we controlled critical moments during the experiment when we diverted the attention of the addressee to a picture that was not part of mutual focus. Immediately following this diversion, addressees heard an utterance from a confederate director that referred to the picture in mutual focus. Each critical moment was analogous to the example of looking at the unattractive building, which was not the topic of conversation, and then hearing, “This building used to be a dormitory. This temporary error should delay the identification of the picture of the Robie House as the actual referent. Indeed, participants in our experiment took longer to identify the Robie House as the referent when their attention was diverted to the unattractive building (which also could be a referent of “this building”), compared to a control condition when they were looking at a picture of a truck (which could not be a referent of “this building. If understanding is guided by the principle of optimal design, then differences in perspectives should not matter. Instead, we found that differences in perspective lead to a systematic pattern of errors, even when the differences are well known. In the case of the Robie House, the unattractive building was not the topic of the conversation, but it was physically present. The perspective of the tour guide was different to the extent that the guide was not focused on that building. In one sense, perspectives always diverge as individuals have private thoughts about things that are not present. We also explored the possibility that addressees search even their private thoughts for potential referents. Consider the use of pronouns: Pronouns can be used to make definite reference to specific entities in the world, just as the demonstrative reference in “this building. The use of pronouns, like other definite descriptions, presupposes that the referent is readily identifiable by the listener (Chafe, 1976). Therefore, when a speaker is using a pronoun appropriately, the referent of that pronoun should be selected from among entities that are mutually known. Because the perspective adjustment theory suggests differently, we investigated how people understand pronouns. The experiments were modeled after the following situation: Suppose that a history professor and a student are discussing topics for a term paper. After considering several options, the student proposes to write about Niccolo Machiavelli. The mention of Machiavelli reminds the professor of John Smith, a colleague whose political intrigues had recently been revealed. As the thought of John Smith crosses the professor’s mind, the student comments: “I think he has been greatly misunderstood. Our experiments show that the professor indeed interprets the utterance egocentrically, and in some cases identifies the referent of “he” to be John Smith instead of Machiavelli. The participants in our experiment made incorrect interpretations three times as often when the professor was reminded of an intrigue-related colleague whose name was John compared to a colleague whose name was Mary. In addition, when the participants correctly identified the referent of “he” to be Machiavelli, there was evidence that they had to adjust their perspective: They took longer to identify Machiavelli as the referent of “he” when they were thinking of a colleague named John rather than a colleague named Mary. So when the private thought was about a person whose gender fit the pronoun, that person was considered as the referent. The fact that the thought is private and not shared by the other person is not sufficient to preempt anchoring in an egocentric interpretation. Perhaps the most dramatic demonstration of egocentric interpretation plus adjustment comes from an experiment that we recently conducted using an eyetracking system (Keysar, Barr, Balin, & Brauner, 2000). Another participant, who was actually a confederate, sat on the other side of the array. They played a simple game: the confederate (the “director”) received a picture that included objects from the array but in different locations. The director then instructed the participant, the addressee, to rearrange objects to match the picture. Although most objects were mutually visible, some objects were occluded so that only the addressee could see them. They did not appear in the director’s photograph and were therefore not part of the game. The array of objects from (A) the addressee’s and (B) the director’s perspectives. The critical instruction (“Put the small candle next to the truck”) picks out a different candle from the director’s perspective (the shared candle) than from the addressee’s perspective (the occluded candle). Using an eyetracking device, we tracked the addressee’s eye movements as they followed the director’s instructions. It has been demonstrated that as soon as people identify an object as a referent, their eye fixates on that object as a precursor to the reach of the hand (Tanenhaus, Spivey-Knowlton, Eberhard, & Sedivy, 1995). Therefore, the eye movement information in our experiment indicated which objects addressees were considering as referents at any given moment. At a critical point, the director told the addressee, “Put the small candle next to the truck. Clearly, the director is talking about the mutually visible candle on the bottom row. The addressee, however, can also see a third candle that is obviously invisible to the director. Addressees take the occluded candle to be the referent before correcting themselves and adjusting to the director’s perspective. In 25% of the cases, the addressee actually reached for the occluded candle, sometimes correcting in midair, sometimes lifting it briefly, returning it, then picking up the correct candle. This demonstrates strikingly how addressees egocentrically identify a referent and then adjust to the speaker’s perspective. However, even when the addressee did not reach for the occluded candle, there was evidence for an egocentric anchor and adjustment. As soon as the addressees heard the expression “the small candle,” their eye was fastest to fixate on the occluded candle – suggesting that they initially identified it as the intended candle. In most cases, one could see the adjustment as the eye moved from the occluded candle and eventually fixated on the candle next to it, the one intended by the director. Such adjustment delayed the identification of the intended candle: the addressees fixated on the intended object much later when the occluded slot contained a small candle than in a control condition, when the occluded slot contained an entirely different object that could not be a referent. The robustness of the effects, along with the fact that participants reached for objects that the director could not see at all, made us somewhat concerned. We suspected that participants might not have paid attention to the difference between visible and occluded objects. It seemed possible that participants simply did not notice which objects were actually occluded from the director’s perspective. To test this possibility, we asked participants to hide the occluded objects themselves. In spite of this, the experiment demonstrated the same interference effects and the same tendency to reach for those objects that could only be referents from the participant’s egocentric perspective. These experiments demonstrate that even when people have full knowledge of the other’s perspective – even when it is very clear that the director cannot see certain objects, and that the objects should not be relevant to their interpretation – addressees do not routinely use that knowledge to constrain comprehension initially. They do not assume that speakers’ utterances are optimally designed to match the shared perspective.
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