Carafate
"Purchase carafate 1000 mg visa, gastritis treatment guidelines."
By: Denise H. Rhoney, PharmD, FCCP, FCCM
- Ron and Nancy McFarlane Distinguished Professor and Chair, Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
https://pharmacy.unc.edu/news/directory/drhoney/
He provides numerous anecdotes about various animals‟ extraordinary feats gastritis diet juicing cheap carafate american express, such as dogs knowing when their owners are coming home gastritis diagnosis discount 1000mg carafate with visa. Sheldrake (1988) explains they‟re able to chronic gastritis food allergy discount 1000 mg carafate otc intuit this by telepathically picking up the owner‟s intention to gastritis antibiotics 1000 mg carafate visa come home from many miles away through “organizing fields of animal and human behaviour, of social and cultural systems, and of mental activity” (p. After all, our bodies have mass, generate heat, pump fluids, and have millions of electric signals which are constantly being transmitted through our nervous systems. The phrase „energy field‟ permeates pop culture, suggesting energy is a thing unto itself that can be transmitted and shared. Sceptics and mainstream science define „energy‟ differently; as a measured, quantified amount of work capability, such as kinetic, mechanical, or the chemical energy that our bloodstream absorbs from eating a steak for example (Dunning, 2014; dictionary. But how then to explain the energy inherent in the communication, I experienced and others observed, between me and this individual from another species? Rhetorician George Kennedy (1992) argues that all animals, human and nonhuman, constantly navigate rhetorical situations by delivering gestures 11 to an audience with a specific purpose. He sees language as less of a distinguishing mark of human exceptionality and more of a commonality given the evolutionary origin shared by many animals. The animal isn‟t reading your mind or necessarily comprehending the words you speak. He understands your displeasure by the tone of your voice, the look on your face and the position of your body. This is reflected in John Peter‟s (1999) definition of communication: “the occasional touch of otherness” (p. The task is to find affinities not limited by our anthropomorphic dispositions” (p. The most common thread among all who write on the subject of animal human communication is: do not underestimate animals, they are smarter than we think they are and capable of much more than we assume (Sheldrake, 1999; Kohanov, 2001, Frans De Waal, 2016). As profound as her personal triumph over autism may be, she still feels completely alienated from human emotion and interaction; however, among animals she is at home. Grandin makes the point that we‟ve lost touch with animals, focusing not on our relationship to them, only their use to us. She maintains it is animals 12 that make us human, if we can only learn to talk to them and listen to what they have to say (Grandin, 2005). His present owner, Dan McCormick himself characterized the 13 year old horse as aloof, unpredictable and dangerous; this coming from the man who has been training, feeding and caring for Duke for the past nine years. Yet even though McCormick prizes Duke above all the other horses in his stable, Duke still would not voluntarily approach Dan or take the treats he offered. McCormick grudgingly confesses that there have been times when he was afraid of Duke (McCormick, personal communication, May 25, 2016). They admitted they would tether one leg, putting the horse off balance then yank him to the ground, pinning his head under the steel bucket of a skid steer. The subsequent owner, also unable to handle him, sold the horse to Dan McCormick, who had had his eye on him for a long time. Why, when he deigns to accept an apple from his owner, he gobbles up all the carrots and apples I proffer? But the experience was clearly so Selfie mutually satisfying that eventually I stopped fearing what others would think. I began documenting our time together with the camera on my cellphone, capturing the calm, serene, and sometimes very amusing moments we shared. It‟s uncanny how Duke always seemed ready for our „selfies‟, appearing to look right into the phone at the end of my outstretched arm. None of the more than 300 images (see Supplementary Materials 2) I have taken over the last couple of years would lead you to believe this „Devil Horse‟ is anything but a pussycat. Science tells us that individuals of most species, except for some great apes, Image 4. From ‘Devil possibly dolphins, elephants and magpies cannot recognize their own Horse’ to ‘Pussycat’ Selfie reflections. So I attempt to check the instinct to anthropomorphise Duke‟s behaviour at the barn door, trying not to make unjustified generalizations about this non-linguistic animal. They have not been edited to support any theory, nor have I intentionally eliminated images, save for those that are useless because they are blurred, out of focus or come in a burst of 20. Is there a connection between the content of what he perceives and the behaviour that is demonstrated in his action (Beck, 2012)? Duke‟s consistent behavioural response to the camera is to come close when I present it. Is Duke‟s response simply due to learned operant or instrumental conditioning (Skinner, 1963)? It should be noted that I have never consciously trained him to respond this way by rewarding the behaviour with praise or treats of any kind. Perhaps Duke has become so habituated to seeing me with this „thing‟ in my hand he associates it with his desire to be close to me, which he appears to enjoy. Perhaps we have become a herd of two given that one of the strongest positive social signs that horses give is their desire to stand very close to another horse with whom they have become „friends‟ (Leste-Lasserre, 2016). When I admit how much time I spend in a barn just hanging around with a horse, I‟m inevitably asked: “Do you talk to him”? Not expecting Duke to understand English I don‟t use many words, I simply try to meet this animal on his own ground, sharing, observing and intermittently recording our relationship. First I took the snaps for my own amusement, then noticing a pattern in Duke‟s demeanour and body 15 language, I realized these images of his behaviour could be a useful record of what this animal might be thinking or feeling. Critics suggest animals, lacking language may not have concepts, and without language, scientists are not in a position to attribute content (Andrews, 2016). Others are uncomfortable attributing thought to animals because they doubt whether animals can reason because that would require reflection, which means they can think about their thoughts. And because language is necessary for such thoughts they conclude animals do not think (Beck, 2012; Chomsky, 2006). Should the question even be whether animals have or don‟t have human-like language? Perhaps instead of finding out how much they are like us, the more relevant questions revolve around how animals communicate their experience of their world to us and each other. If animals are to be measured only against a human yardstick, will they not always fail by comparison (Noske, 1997)? A perennial example of an animal‟s ability, or inability, to think is the story of Clever Hans, a famous horse in turn of the century Germany. The animal‟s devoted trainer enthralled audiences with his horses‟ miraculous mathematical feats. Hans could add, subtract, multiply and even divide, tapping out the correct answer with his hoof. He was responding and reacting to the imperceptibly subtle body language unconsciously communicated by the human asking the question (Noske, 1997). Ever since Hans and his trainer were exposed as fakes, scientists have been using the story of Clever Hans as a “definitive example of mistaken inference of complex mental abilities in animals” (Griffin, 2001, p. That scientific denunciation has mushroomed into a blanket denial that animals have even the simplest conscious thoughts (Griffin, 2001). While rigor and caution are essential to 16 good science, perhaps something extraordinary has been overlooked in ignoring the fact the horse was accomplishing a significant and quite remarkable feat. Hans was singling out one person in the crowd and catching the smallest most inadvertent movement they didn‟t even realize they were making while anxiously focusing on whether or not the horse would come up with the correct answer. Was he aware or simply reacting to stimuli in the same way as any other horse in the wild would? They are always aware of and responding to the most minute warning signals in body language of their own, and any other species, in their midst. Domestication has exploited this survival strategy (Goodwin, 1999) and has influenced the evolution of both humans and horses, who‟ve become who they are through their interactions with the Other (Smuts, 2005; Brandt, 2004). Charles Darwin argued animal signals, while species-specific, are expressions of emotions with the function of relaying the signaller‟s emotional and motivational states (Darwin, 1886; Andrews, 2016). While he may not have a concept of self, akin to my self-concept as a unique mortal who is able to reflect upon itself, Duke does recognize me to be an individual different from the others he knows, and is an active participant in our unique relationship. His behaviour suggests he not only remembers me and the activity related to the thing in my hand, but he also appears „happy‟ to see me, as I have recorded countless times in my journal. I choose to agree with Carl Safina (2015) who has written extensively on what animals think and feel: “Sometimes when an animal looks happy to see you, it‟s because he is happy to see you” 17 (Safina, 2015). Sadly, Duke‟s owner laments that this horse, which he admittedly loves, never exhibits similar behaviour with him or anyone else.
Efficacy of lorazepam and haloperidol for rapid tranquilization in a sodium valproate and haloperidol in the management of psychiatric emergency room setting gastritis diet effective carafate 1000mg. Comparative psychotic agitation: a randomized comparison of oral efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs in acute treatment with risperidone and lorazepam versus intra mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis gastritis diet order generic carafate online. Villari V gastritis diet advice nhs generic carafate 1000mg with amex, Rocca P gastritis diet best purchase carafate, Fonzo V, Montemagni C, Pandullo P, and mood stabilizer efficacy and tolerability in pediatric Bogetto F. Oral risperidone, olanzapine and quetiapine and adult patients with bipolar I mania: a comparative versus haloperidol in psychotic agitation. Bowden C, Gogus A, Grunze H, Haggstrom L, Ryba intramuscular injections of olanzapine, lorazepam, or kowski J, Vieta E. A 12-week, open, randomized trial placebo in treating acutely agitated patients diagnosed comparing sodium valproate to lithium in patients with with bipolar mania. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 21: bipolar I disorder suffering from a manic episode. Efficacy of study of the effectiveness and safety of intramuscular valproate versus lithium in mania or mixed mania: a olanzapine in the treatment of acute agitation in randomized, open 12-week trial. Int Clin Psychopharma patients with bipolar mania or schizophrenia ⁄ schizoaf col 2010; 25: 60–67. Intramuscu moderate mania: a randomized, 12-week, double-blind lar olanzapine vs. A randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter ziprasidone, haloperidol plus promethazine, haloperidol study of divalproex sodium extended-release in the acute plus midazolam and haloperidol alone. J Clin and active-controlled study of paliperidone extended Psychiatry 2000; 61: 933–941. Bipolar Disord 2010; 12: of acute agitation in patients with bipolar disorder: 230–243. Research Abstracts, Annual Meeting of the American Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of paliperidone Psychiatric Association. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2010; trial of asenapine in the treatment of acute mania in 64: 162–169. Asenapine in the treatment of acute mania in blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Bipolar bipolar I disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo Disord 2006; 8: 485–489. Asenapine versus olanzapine in acute mania: the efficacy and safety of the purinergic agents allopurinol a double-blind extension study. Bipolar Disord 2009; 11: and dipyridamole adjunctive to lithium in acute bipolar 815–826. Asenapine for long-term treatment of randomized, placebo-controlled 6-week study on the effi bipolar disorder: a double-blind 40-week extension study. Assessment of safety, tolerability and Memantine efficacy and safety in patients with acute effectiveness of adjunctive aripiprazole to lithium ⁄ valpro mania associated with bipolar I disorder: a pilot evalu ate in bipolar mania: a 46-week, open-label extension ation. Asenapine as therapy to lithium or valproate in the treatment of acute adjunctive treatment for bipolar mania: a placebo-con mania: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Olanzapine-divalproex combination ver Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2009; 24: 145–149. Effects of stimulus intensity on the efficacy and safety of J Clin Psychiatry 2009; 70: 1540–1547. Early symptom combined with antipsychotics in acute mania: a rando change and prediction of subsequent remission with mised controlled trial. Bipolar Disord 2009; 11: 126– olanzapine augmentation in divalproex-resistant bipolar 134. Effects of asenapine on depres oxcarbazepine versus divalproex sodium in the treatment sive symptoms in patients with bipolar I disorder expe of acute mania: a pilot study. Eur Psychiatry 2009; 24: riencing acute manic or mixed episodes: a post hoc 178–182. Prog Neuro-psychophar placebo-controlled trials in bipolar depression: a meta macol Biol Psychiatry 2009; 33: 94–99. The Efficacy and Tolerability of for bipolar depression: a systematic review of randomized, Cariprazine in Acute Mania Associated With Bipolar I controlled trials. Lurasidone Adjunc for treatment of bipolar depression: independent meta tive to Lithium or Valproate for the Treatment of Bipolar analysis and meta-regression of individual patient data I Depression: Results of a 6-Week, Double-Blind, Pla from five randomised trials. Efficacy value of early improvement in bipolar depression trials: a and safety of two treatment algorithms in bipolar post-hoc pooled analysis of two 8-week aripiprazole depression consisting of a combination of lithium, lamo studies. Presented at 164th Ann Mtg American Psychiatric double-blind, placebo-controlled study of olanzapine in Association. J Clin therapy for acute depression in patients with bipolar I or Psychiatry 2005; 66: 870–886. A 7-week, ment of glutamatergic neurotransmission in bipolar randomized, double-blind trial of olanzapine ⁄ fluoxetine depression following treatment with riluzole. Neuropsy combination versus lamotrigine in the treatment of bipolar chopharmacology 2010; 35: 834–846. Olanzapine ⁄ flu N-acetylcysteine as an adjunctive treatment in bipolar oxetine combination vs. Efficacy of olanza randomized add-on trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate pine and olanzapine-fluoxetine combination in the treat antagonist in treatment-resistant bipolar depression. Adjunctive armodafinil for major depressive versus placebo in the treatment of acute bipolar depression: episodes associated with bipolar I disorder: a randomized, a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of 2010; 124: 228–234. Rapid and sustained treatmentofacutebipolardepression:systematicreviewand antidepressant response with sleep deprivation and chro meta-analysis. A Six-Week Flexible Dose Study Evaluating bipolar depression during acute and continuation trials of the Efficacy and Safety of Geodon in Patients With venlafaxine, sertraline, and bupropion as adjuncts to Bipolar I Depression. Efficacy and safety randomized trial comparing paroxetine and venlafaxine of adjunctive oral ziprasidone for acute treatment of in the treatment of bipolar depressed patients taking depression in patients with bipolar I disorder: a random mood stabilizers. Predictors of an adjunctive treatment or monotherapy in bipolar nonadherence among individuals with bipolar disorder patients unresponsive to mood stabilizers: results from a receiving treatment in a community mental health clinic. Pharmacopsychiatry 2010; mono and adjunctive treatment in acute bipolar depres 43: 263–270. Aripipraz beliefs influence adherence to medication in patients with ole as adjunct to a mood stabilizer and citalopram in bipolar affective disorder? A preliminary cross-sectional bipolar depression: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. Predictors of medication nonadherence and hospital Effect of aripiprazole on self-reported anhedonia in bipolar ization in Medicaid patients with bipolar I disorder given depressed patients. J Clin medication adherence among patients with bipolar disor Psychiatry 2011; 72: 744–750. J Clin Psychiatry 2007; 68: ziprasidone dosing on treatment discontinuation rates in 1785–1792. Risperidone and paroxetine given with a high recurrence in a bipolar disorder outpatient singly and in combination for bipolar depression. Indirect costs associated with treatment of bipolar depression: a systematic review and nonadherence to treatment for bipolar disorder. The relationship between anti placebo-controlled comparison of imipramine and par psychotic medication adherence and patient outcomes oxetine in the treatment of bipolar depression. Am J among individuals diagnosed with bipolar disorder: a ret Psychiatry 2001; 158: 906–912. Risk of rehospitalization among efficacy and acceptability of 12 new-generation antide bipolar disorder patients who are nonadherent to anti pressants: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. The need for a broader prospective, multinational, observational study of factors conceptualization of iatrogenic course aggravation in associated with recovery from mania in bipolar disorder clinical trials of bipolar disorder. Lamotrigine versus lithium as maintenance treatment and divalproex in rapid cycling bipolar disorder: a post in bipolar I disorder: an open, randomized effectiveness hoc analysis of two studies. The efficacy of cognitive prevention of mood episodes with risperidone long-acting behavioral therapy in bipolar disorder: a quantitative injectable in patients with bipolar I disorder. A random therapy for major psychiatric disorder: does it really ized, placebo and active-controlled study of paliperidone work?
Purchase carafate 1000mg amex. GERD Diet for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Secrets.
We chose not to congestive gastritis definition 1000 mg carafate free shipping perform meta-analyses when only two studies were available to gastritis from stress cheap carafate online visa pool as chronic gastritis yahoo answers purchase carafate 1000mg on-line, in this context gastritis diet garlic purchase 1000 mg carafate amex, application of the Knapp-Hartung adjustment can diminish power to trivial levels and 17 standard approaches can easily suffer from extreme inflation of type-I error. As a sensitivity analysis, we also performed all meta-analyses using fixed-effect models. These results are charitably interpreted as providing an estimate of the true average effect among completed trials and are presented along with the results derived from analyses using random 18 effect models. We assessed the clinical and methodological heterogeneity to determine appropriateness of 20 pooling data. When pooling was not appropriate due to lack of comparable studies or heterogeneity, qualitative synthesis was conducted. Phases were grouped as: (1) acute mania or hypomania, including mixed, (2) acute depression, (3) any acute state (often for psychosocial maintenance studies), (4) euthymic or subsyndromal (generally for maintenance studies), and (5) nonspecific, that is, either euthymic, acute in any episode, or post hospitalization (these studies stated essentially any patient with bipolar disorder except acute mania). For drug studies treating patients for residual symptoms, patients were classified as nonresponders to standard treatment (usually noted in adjunctive drug studies). Studies were categorized as maintenance studies if the study inclusion criteria did not specify an acute episode at study entry. For acute mania treatment, outcomes were grouped by 3-4 weeks and then final measurement (generally 6 to 12 weeks) if available. Maintenance study outcomes are reported at 6 months, 8-12 months, and “prolonged followup” of the final endpoint. In forest plots, outcomes in studies assessed as having a high risk of bias, or low to moderate risk of bias but at least 40 percent attrition, were presented in grey scale. Strength of Evidence for Major Comparisons and Outcomes the overall strength of evidence for primary outcomes within each comparison were evaluated based on four required domains: (1) study limitations (risk of bias); (2) directness (a single, direct link between intervention and outcome); (3) consistency (similarity of effect 21 direction and size); and (4) precision (degree of certainty around an estimate). A fifth domain, reporting bias, was assessed when strength of evidence based upon the first four domains is 21 moderate or high. Based on study design and conduct, study limitations were rated as low, moderate, or high. Assessing strength of evidence for studies with null findings is especially challenging because several domains are designed to address differences. It is hard to assess effect size when there is no effect in studies that test for superiority; how does one establish a level of precision that provides confidence of no effect? This is especially true when populations, interventions, and comparators are not consistent, as is the case with much of the nondrug literature. We also downgraded precision when there was considerable attrition that was addressed through last-observation carried forward methods. Due to the large number of comparisons with findings of no effect, we assessed strength of evidence and formulated results 21 cautiously. Based on these factors, the overall evidence for each outcome was rated as: High: Very confident that estimate of effect lies close to true effect. Moderate: Moderately confidence that estimate of effect lies close to true effect. Some deficiencies in body of evidence; findings likely to be stable, but some doubt. Low: Limited confidence that estimate of effect lies close to true effect; major or numerous deficiencies in body of evidence. Additional evidence necessary before concluding that findings are stable or that estimate of effect is close to true effect. Insufficient: No evidence, unable to estimate an effect, or no confidence in estimate of effect. We assessed strength of evidence for validated scales (such as the Beck Depression Inventory, Young Mania Rating Scale, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Clinical Global Improvement Scale) and commonly used items that examine improved function (such as the Functional Assessment Short Test). We did not assess strength of evidence for less commonly measured items such as increased time between episodes or hospitalizations. Attempted suicide and other self-harming behaviors were also not assessed for strength of evidence due to the difficulty of defining and measuring such behaviors. Bipolar research generally draws from highly defined populations, resulting in samples that are often drawn from subpopulations rather than the bipolar populations at large. Applicability also deals with transportability of evidence for the type of treatment—level of treatment, treatment fidelity, skills of treatment agent, setting (and measurement)—and its fit to a particular treatment setting. Study characteristics that may affect applicability include, but are not limited to, the population from which the study participants are enrolled, diagnostic assessment processes, narrow eligibility criteria, and patient and intervention characteristics different than those described by population studies of bipolar 22 disorder. These applicability issues are present in the synthesis frameworks and sensitivity analyses described in more detail in the data synthesis section. We addressed all reviewer comments, revised the text as appropriate, and documented all responses in a disposition of comments report made available within 3 months of the Agency posting the final systematic review on the Effective Health Care website. Literature flow diagram We identified 188 unique publications eligible for inclusion, including 123 studies of drug treatments and their associated harms, and 65 focused on psychosocial and other physical treatments. An additional 62 publications, 57 drug and 5 psychosocial, were excluded for attrition greater than 50 percent; brief abstracts of these studies are provided in Appendix D. These treatments and their comparators may have been single drug therapies or combination therapies of multiple drugs tested against either monotherapies or other multiple drug therapies. These then separated into 103 treatment comparisons, 59 of which had only one study contribute information. For Key Question 3, we found no studies meeting inclusion criteria that looked at treatments to reduce metabolic change side effects of drug treatments. Table 4 breaks the included studies down into each individual comparison for drug studies. Each study represented a unique comparison due to differences in the structure of each intervention and control/comparator groups. Table 5 provides the included studies for each individual comparison for nondrug studies. Drug Treatments for Acute Mania We identified 71 publications of 67 unique studies for acute mania that examined 28 separate drugs tested against 14 different comparators. These treatments and their comparators may have been single drug therapies or combination therapies of multiple drugs tested against either placebo monotherapies or other multiple drug therapies. The 67 studies combined into 56 treatment comparisons, 35 of which had only one study contribute information. The high attrition studies (greater than 50% were excluded because observed results among patients who complete a trial may not generalize to the entire patient population of interest if systematic differences between patients who do not complete the study and those who do. Moreover, if there are differential rates of attrition across study arms, or even similar rates but a different distribution of reasons for attrition, primary effect estimates and statistical inference can suffer from bias, potentially severe. Moreover, estimates of standard errors will understate the true uncertainty surrounding effect estimates due to the added uncertainty of having to impute data, leading readers to believe the result is more 24 precise than it actually is and potentially inflating the type-I error rate. This potential bias in the estimates of effect is even more problematic in studies with greater than 50 percent attrition that require imputing half or more of the data. The results in this chapter for treatments for acute mania are organized by general drug category: antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and drugs otherwise not specified. Within the antipsychotics section, results are presented by specific drug, then broken into single drugs compared to placebo or another drug, then, when appropriate, drug in combination with mood stabilizers compared to placebo or another drug. Likewise, the mood stabilizers and other drugs sections are presented first by single drug results followed by combination therapy results. Studies for antipsychotics plus mood stabilizers were even more sparse and scattered. Participants using atypical antipsychotics, except quetiapine, reported experiencing more extrapyramidal symptoms compared to placebo. Participants using haloperidol reported experiencing more extrapyramidal symptoms compared to other antipsychotics. Participants using olanzapine reported experiencing more clinically significant weight gain. An additional unpublished study for aripiprazole plus mood stabilizers was also included for metaanalysis. All were examined as single drugs and all but cariprazine were also examined as a treatment combined with mood stabilizers. Appendix E provides detailed evidence tables, summary risk of bias assessments, forest plots when appropriate, and assessments of strength of evidence for key comparisons and outcomes. A summary of findings with at least low-strength evidence for drug treatments for acute mania are provided in Table 6. Any intervention and comparison not listed in Table 6, or outcome not listed for an included intervention and comparison, was found to have an evidence base insufficient to draw conclusions. Three studies were assessed as moderate risk of bias and three were assessed as high.
The effect of methylphenidate (Ritalin) on the motor skills and behaviour of children with learning problems; J gastritis and diarrhea diet discount carafate amex. A study of age regression under hypnosis gastritis fundus order carafate with a mastercard, Experimental Hypnosis; edited by Leslie M symptoms of gastritis in babies buy discount carafate 1000mg online. The experimental induction of a multiple personality; Psychiatry gastritis diet 5 2 purchase cheapest carafate, 1942, 5:179-186 Lewin Roger, Is your brain really necessary, Science 210 (December 12,1980) Liberman, R. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedia; Gordon and Breach, New York, London, Paris, 1978 Lozanov, G. The Foreign Language Teacher’s Suggestopedic Manual; Gordon and Breach Science Publishers S. Kirchev, Uber eine durch Suggestion in wachem Zustand hervorgerufenen und geheilten Urtikariaanfall, Allergie und Asthma, Leipzig, 1962, Band 8, heft 1, s. Biochemical mechanisms correlated with learning and memory formations, facts and hypotheses. Multimind: A new way of looking at human behaviour; First Anchor Books Edition, New York, 1986 Parrish, M. Hypnotic age regression and magnitudes of the Ponzo and Poggendorff Illusions; Science, 1968, 159, 3821:1375-1376 Penfield, W. Some dimensions of remembering: Steps toward a neuropsychological model of memory, in Macromolecules and behaviour, Academic Press, New York, 1966 Pribram, K. The four Rs of remembering, in On the Biology of Learning, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1969 Pribram, K. The Holographic Hypothesis of Memory Structure in Brain Function and Perception; Psychology Today, del Mar. Languages of the brain: Experimental paradoxes and principles in neuropsychology; Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, New York, 1971 Pribram, K. Consciousness: A Scientific Approach; Journal of Indian Psychology, Andhra University Press, India, 1978, 1, 2:95-119 Prince, M. Some of the revelations of hypnotism: Post-hypnotic suggestion, automatic writing, and double personality; Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 1890, 122: May 8, 463-467; 475-476; May 22, 493-495 Prince, M. The dissociation of a personality; Longmans Green, new York and London, 1906 Reivich, M. Determination of local cerebral glucose metabolism in humans: methodology and applications to the study of sensory and cognitive stimuli; in L. Hypnosis in medical practice; Journal of the American medical Association, 1961, 175:976-979 Rosen, H. Hypnosis: Applications and misapplications; Journal of the American Medical Association, 1960, 172:683-687 Rosenthal, R. Gesundheitsschadigungen nach Hypnose, Ergebnisse einer Sammelforschung; nd Carl Marhold Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, 1922 (2 unaltered edition, 1954) Schultz, I. A contribution to a history of the placebo effect; Behavioural Science, 1960, 5:109-135 Shapiro, A. Psychopathological research: Study in mental dissociation; Stechert, New York, 1902 Squire, J. Dos tipos fundamentales de suggestion; Archivos Panamenos de Psicologia, 1965, I, 3-4:246-252 Teitel, B. Post-hypnotic psychosis and the law; In Scientific Papers of the One Hundred and Seventeenth Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association in Summary Form, Velvovsky, I. The Bulgarian suggestopaedic method as a psychohygienopaedic method – a contribution to the psychohygiene of mental work in pedagogy, Problems of suggestology, Sofia, 1973 Washington, D. Placebos in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic conditioning; Ann. Experimental control in hypnotic age regression states, Science, 1949, 110 (2866):5830584 Uhlenhuth, E. Neustadt, et al: the symptomatic relief of anxiety with meprobamate, Phenobarbital and placebo; Am. Traditional and Semi-Traditional Techniques and Phenomenology; John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1989, Vol. Towards a theory of brain functioning: the possibilities of neutral th holographic processes, 20 Ann. Influence of doctors’ and patients’ attitudes in the treatment of neurotic illness; Lancet, 1967, 2:1133-1135 White, L. Placebo: Theory, Research and Mechanisms; the Guilford Press, New York, 1985 Wolberg, L. An experimental study of mental and physical function in normal and hypnotic states; Amer. An experimental study of mental and physical function in normal and hypnotic states; Additional results; Amer. Hypnosis: A tool for education; Education, 1962, 82:505-507 138 References – Cyrillic Адрианов, О. О принципах организации кортикалних входов, В: Структурно функционалние механизми корковой интеграции. Петербург; 1896 Близниченко, Ввод и закрепление информации в памяти человека во время естественного сна, Киев, 1966 Данилевски В. Петров, За някои особености на двигателната и речевата функция при задръжни състояния на кората на главния мозък, Известия на института по експериментална медицина при БАН, 1957, т. Гатева, Сугестопедично практическо ръководство за преподаватели по чужди езици, Научно-изследователски институт по сугестология,1981,София Лурия А. Либих, Запоминание язикового материала в условиях мишечной релаксации и аутогенной тренировки, вопр. With time he will find his own place in the chain, and history will restore his real dimension for him. Sokolowski Genes are understandably crucial to physiology, morphology and biochemistry, but the idea of genes contributing to individual differences in behaviour once seemed outrageous. Nevertheless, some scientists have aspired to understand the relationship between genes and behaviour, and their research has become increasingly informative and productive over the past several decades. At the forefront of behavioural genetics research is the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster, which has provided us with important insights into the molecular, cellular and evolutionary bases of behaviour. The nervous system,the most crucial sys and by deriving lessons that might be of general signifi tem in the elicitation of behaviour, is formed during cance to the question of how genes affect complex development by networks of interacting genes. The review centres on a discussion of how networks assemble the physiological structures neces genes that are involved in foraging, circadian rhythms, sary to generate these behaviour patterns. In addition to courtship, and learning and memory specifically con these genetic contributions, an organism also experi tribute to their respective behaviours. General principles ences environmental conditions throughout its life that learned from Drosophila,along with a vision for future can influence its behaviours. Despite these and other behavioural research, are discussed towards the end of sources of complexity,a significant amount of research the review. She 3359 Mississauga Road, general understanding of evolutionarily conserved then chooses whether to copulate with him3,4. Other compo However,this definition of behaviour is vague and not limited to behavioural nents of Drosophila behaviour include olfaction and phenotypes. From an experimental point of view,each behaviour that is under study gustation20,21 (mediated by olfactory and taste receptors, must be defined in the context of its own paradigm. Practical definitions of which have,for example,been discovered using a com behaviour,however,are often challenged by the fact that even the simplest behaviour puter algorithm to find putative receptors in the pattern can be broken down into smaller individual ‘behaviours’. During courtship,flies integrate many olfaction-, ity to ethanol15,16 and cocaine18,19. Normal individual dif mechanosensation and vision-derived cues,all of which are important components ferences in these behaviours have,for the most part,not of behaviour. The fact that behaviours seem to be embedded in one another and the yet been investigated. In the light of this,how can we determine if a Natural behavioural variants behavioural phenotype is robust enough for genetic analysis? The natural-variant approach in Drosophila behavioural As with other non-behavioural phenotypes,a relatively simple,easily repeatable and reproducible measure of behaviour is required for genetic screens that often involve genetics is helping to clarify the nature of the genes and thousands of animals116.