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N Engl J Med 1956;255:57–65 performed three supervised sessions of bicycling per 3 muscle relaxant use in elderly buy tizanidine 2 mg with visa. Each session consisted of a fiveAnn Neurol 1981;9(suppl):6–19 minute warm-up and 30 minutes of cycling followed by 5 4 back spasms 9 months pregnant buy tizanidine 2mg with amex. Eighty-percent syndrome: clinicopathologic report of 50 fatal cases and a of patients in this cohort were motivated to muscle relaxant video cheap tizanidine online mastercard continue critique of the literature muscle relaxant patch order generic tizanidine pills. Efficiency of plasma exchange in Guillain-Barre syndrome: role of replacement fiuids. French Cooperative Group on priate exercise program; for example, one that Plasma Exchange in Guillain-Barre Syndrome. A randomized trial 177–179 comparing intravenous immune globulin and plasma ciated with routine immunization. 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Hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of Fournier’s disease in 11 male patients spasms when urinating purchase 2 mg tizanidine. Transfer status: A risk factor for mortality in patients with necrotizing fasciitis spasms hiatal hernia 2mg tizanidine. Safe administration of hyperbaric oxygen after bleomycin:a case series of 15 patients spasms during sleep 2 mg tizanidine fast delivery. Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy does not potentiate doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in rats muscle relaxant for stiff neck 2 mg tizanidine free shipping. A progressively enlarging ulcer of abdominal wall involving the skin and fat, following drainage of an abdominal abscess, apparently of appendiceal origin. The role of deferoxamine in dialysis-associate mucormycosis: report of three cases and review of the literature. Gastrointestinal mucormycosis in infants and children: a cause of gangrenous intestinal cellulitis and perforation. Predictors of pulmonary zygomycosis versus invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with cancer. Specifc susceptibility to mucormycosis in murine diabetes and bronchoalveolar macrophage defense against Rhizopus. Rhizopus oryzae adheres to, is phagocytosed by, and damages endothelial cells in vitro. Imperatore F, Cuzzocrea S, De Lucia D, Sessa M, Rinaldi B, Capuano A, Liguori G, Filippelli A, Rossi F. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy prevents coagulation disorders in an experimental model of multiple organ failure syndrome. Hyperbaric oxygen protects from sepsis mortality via an interleukin-10-dependent mechanism. Issues related to the design and interpretation of clinical trials of salvage therapy for invasive mold infection. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for cutaneous/soft-tissue zygomycosis complicating diabetes mellitus. Breakthrough zygomycosis after voriconazole administration among patients with hematologic malignancies who receive hematopoietic stem-cell transplants or intensive chemotherapy. Frozen section-guided surgical debridement for management of rhino-orbital mucormycosis. Hyperbaric oxygen as an adjunct to the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis of the mandible: report of case. A mechanism for the amelioration by hyperbaric oxygen of experimental staphylococcal osteomyelitis in rabbits. Oxygen tensions and infections: modulation of microbial growth, activity of antimicrobial agents, and immunologic responses. Efect of hyperbaric oxygen exposure on oxygen tension within the medullary canal in the rabbit tibial osteomyelitis model. Potentiation of tobramycin by hyperbaric oxygen in experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa osteomyelitis. Terapy with hyperbaric oxygen and cefazolin for experimental osteomyelitis due to Staphylococcus aureus in rats. The efect of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on the bout of treatment for soft tissue infections. Efect of hyperbaric oxygenation on fracture healing in the rat: a biochemical study. Biochemical studies on fracture healing in the rat, with special reference to the oxygen supply. Bone healing of tibial lengthening is enhanced by hyperbaric oxygen therapy: a study of bone mineral density and torsional strength on rabbits. Histologic study of the efect of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on autogenous free bone grafts. Hyperbaric oxygen reduces edema and necrosis of skeletal muscle in compartment syndromes associated with hemorrhagic hypotension. Impairment of microbicidal function in wounds: correction with oxygenation, in soft and hard tissue repair. Efect of O2 tension on microbicidal function of leukocytes in wounds and in vitro. Shorter courses of parenteral antibiotic therapy do not appear to infuence response rates for children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis: a systematic review. Antibiotic treatment of osteomyelitis: what have we learned from 30 years of clinical trialsfi Antibiotic cement-coated interlocking nail for the treatment of infected nonunions and segmental bone defects. Reconstruction of segmental bone defects due to chronic osteomyelitis with use of an external fxator and an intramedullary nail. Successful treatment of extended epidural abscess and long segment osteomyelitis: a case report and review of the literature. Treatment of osteomyelitis and infected non-union of the femur by a modifed Ilizarov technique: follow-up study. Single-stage autogenous bone grafting and internal fxation in the surgical management of pyogenic discitis and vertebral osteomyelitis. Microvascular transfer of free tissue for closure of bone wounds of the distal lower extremity. Nonvascularised fbular transfer in the management of defects of long bones after sequestrectomy in children. Oral step-down therapy is comparable to intravenous therapy for Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. The efectiveness and safety of oral linezolid for the primary and secondary treatment of osteomyelitis. Use of ofoxacin in open fractures and in the treatment of post-traumatic osteomyelitis. Clinical experience with daptomycin for the treatment of patients with osteomyelitis. Clinical and economic efect of ciprofoxacin as an alternative to injectable antimicrobial therapy. Linezolid in the treatment of osteomyelitis: results of compassionate use experience. Clinical evaluation of cefoxitin in treatment of infections in 47 orthopedic patients. Management of Aspergillus osteomyelitis: report of failure of liposomal amphotericin B and response to voriconazole in an immunocompetent host and literature review. Use of hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of refractory osteomyelitis: a preliminary report. Efectiveness and tolerability of prolonged linezolid treatment for chronic osteomyelitis: a retrospective study. Hematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis due to Staphylococcus aureus in the adult: clinical features and therapeutic outcomes. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects (second of three parts). Oral ofoxacin versus parenteral imipenem-cilastatin in the treatment of osteomyelitis. Oral ciprofoxacin compared with standard parenteral antibiotic therapy for chronic osteomyelitis in adults. Oral enoxacin versus conventional intravenous antimicrobial therapy for chronic osteomyelitis. A comparison of shortand long-term intravenous antibiotic therapy in the postoperative management of adult osteomyelitis. Preliminary report of the safety and efcacy of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for specifc complications of lung transplantation. Osteomyelitis: a review of clinical features, therapeutic considerations and unusual aspects.
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Susceptibility and resistance — Recovery from yellow fever is followed by lasting immunity; second attacks are unknown spasms pregnant belly buy tizanidine in india. Identification — Onset is usually abrupt with fever spasms in lower left abdomen tizanidine 2 mg with visa, malaise muscle relaxant used during surgery cheap tizanidine amex, anorexia spasms below left breast buy tizanidine 2mg otc, nausea and abdominal discomfort, followed within a few days by jaundice. The disease varies in clinical severity from a mild illness lasting 1-2 weeks, to a severely disabling disease lasting several months (rare). Many infections are asymptomatic; many are mild and without jaundice, especially in children, and recognizable only by liver function tests. Diagnosis is established by the demonstration of IgM antibodies against hepatitis A virus in the serum of acutely or recently ill patients; IgM may remain detectable for 4-6 months after onset. It has been classified as Enterovirus type 72, a member of the family Picornaviridae. Reservoir — Man, and rarely captive chimpanzees; less frequently, certain other nonhuman primates. An enzootic focus has been identified in Malaysia, but there is no suggestion of transmission to man. Commonsource outbreaks have been related to contaminated water; food contaminated by infected foodhandlers, including sandwiches and salads which are not cooked or are handled after cooking; and raw or undercooked molluscs harvested from contaminated waters. Although rare, instances have been reported of transmission by transfusion of blood from a donor during the incubation period. Lesson 1: Introduction to Epidemiology Page 55 Epidemic Disease Occurrence Level of disease the amount of a particular disease that is usually present in a community is the baseline level of the disease. This level is not necessarily the preferred level, which should in fact be zero; rather it is the observed level. Theoretically, if no intervention occurred and if the level is low enough not to deplete the pool of susceptible persons, the disease occurrence should continue at the baseline level indefinitely. For example, over the past 4 years the number of reported cases of poliomyelitis has ranged from 5 to 9. Therefore, assuming there is no change in population, we would expect to see approximately 7 reported cases next year. Different diseases, in different communities, show different patterns of expected occurrence: 1) a persistent level of occurrence with a low to moderate disease level is referred to as an endemic level; 2) a persistently high level of occurrence is called a hyperendemic level; 3) an irregular pattern of occurrence, with occasional cases occurring at irregular intervals is called sporadic. When the occurrence of a disease within an area is clearly in excess of the expected level for a given time period, it is called an epidemic. Public health officials often use the term outbreak, which means the same thing, because it is less provocative to the public. When an epidemic spreads over several countries or continents, affecting a large number of people, it is called a pandemic. Epidemics occur when an agent and susceptible hosts are present in adequate numbers, and the agent can effectively be conveyed from a source to the susceptible hosts. More specifically, an epidemic may result from the following: • a recent increase in amount or virulence of the agent • the recent introduction of the agent into a setting where it has not been before • an enhanced mode of transmission so that more susceptibles are exposed • some change in the susceptibility of the host response to the agent • factors that increase host exposure or involve introduction through new portals of entry (16) Page 56 Principles of Epidemiology Epidemic patterns We sometimes classify epidemics by how they spread through a population, as shown below: • Common source — Point — Intermittent — Continuous • Propagated • Mixed • Other A common source outbreak is one in which a group of persons is exposed to a common noxious influence, such as an infectious agent or a toxin. If the group is exposed over a relatively brief period, so that everyone who becomes ill develops disease at the end of one incubation period, then the common source outbreak is further classified as a point source outbreak. The epidemic of leukemia cases in Hiroshima following the atomic bomb blast and the epidemic of hepatitis A among college football players who unknowingly drank contaminated water after practice one day each had a point source of exposure (11, 21). When the number of cases in a point source epidemic is plotted over time, the resulting epidemic curve classically has a steep upslope and a more gradual downslope (a so-called “log-normal distribution”). In some common source outbreaks, cases may be exposed over a period of days, weeks, or longer, with the exposure being either intermittent or continuous. When we plot the cases of a continuous common source outbreak over time, the range of exposures and range of incubation periods tend to dampen and widen the peaks of the epidemic curve. Similarly, when we plot an intermittent common source outbreak we often find an irregular pattern that reflects the intermittent nature of the exposure. An outbreak that does not have a common source, but instead spreads gradually from person to person—usually growing as it spreads—is called a propagated outbreak. In theory, the epidemic curve of a propagated epidemic would have a successive series of peaks reflecting increasing numbers of cases in each generation. The epidemic usually wanes after a few generations, either because the number of susceptibles falls below some critical level, or because intervention measures become effective. For many diseases, the variability of time of exposure and range of incubation periods tend to smooth out the peaks and valleys, as shown in Figure 1. For influenza, the incubation period is so short and transmission is so effective that its epidemic curve can look like that of a point source epidemic. Some epidemics may have features of both common source epidemics and propagated epidemics. The pattern of a common source outbreak followed by secondary person-to-person spread is not uncommon. Over the next few weeks, several state health departments detected subsequent generations of shigella cases spread by person-to-person transmission from festival attendees (19). Finally, some epidemics are neither common source in its usual sense nor propagated from person-to-person. Outbreaks of zoonotic or vectorborne disease may result from sufficient prevalence of infection in host species, sufficient presence of vectors, and sufficient humanvector interaction. Examples include the epidemic of Lyme disease which affected several states in the northeastern United States in the late 1980’s and the large epidemic of St. For each of the following outbreak settings, choose the most likely epidemic pattern. Outbreak of salmonellosis traced to turkey cooked and held at an improper temperature and served at a pot-luck supper. Outbreak of influenza among nursing home residents, new cases occurring over a 3-week period (Hint: incubation period for influenza is less than 5 days. Episodic cases of Legionnaires’ disease in hospitalized patients traced to showers and the hospital’s water supply. Lesson 1: Introduction to Epidemiology Page 61 Summary As a discipline within public health, epidemiology includes the study of the frequency, patterns, and causes of health-related states or events in populations, and the application of the information gained to public health issues. In epidemiology, our “patient” is the public at large— the community—and in “treating” our patient we perform several tasks, including public health surveillance, disease investigation, analytic epidemiology, and evaluation. With surveillance, we constantly monitor the health of a community to detect any changes in disease occurrence. This requires us to regularly collect, analyze, interpret, and disseminate data, with the intention of taking prompt and appropriate public health action should we identify a problem. Epidemiology provides us with a systematic approach for determining What, Who, Where, When, and Why/How. We rely on standard case definitions to determine What, that is, whether a specific person has a particular disease. We use descriptive epidemiology to describe disease occurrence by person (Who), place (Where), and time (When). We also use descriptive epidemiology to portray the characteristics and public health of a population or community. We identify the populations in which cases occur, and calculate rates of disease for different populations. We use differences in disease rates to target disease intervention activities and to generate hypotheses about possible risk factors and causes of disease. We then use analytic epidemiology to sort out and quantify potential risk factors and causes (Why). As epidemiologists carrying out these tasks, we must be part of a larger team of institutions and individuals, including health-care providers, government leaders and workers, laboratorians, and others dedicated to promoting and protecting the public’s health. Therefore, public health officials need to ask, How common are these behaviors in our communityfi What types of public health programs might be most effective in reaching these groupsfi Answers to these questions should help officials develop appropriate policies and programs. The individual can use this information to make individual choices regarding sexual behavior and use of intravenous drugs. For example, the findings might convince someone who uses intravenous drugs only occasionally to abandon them altogether. The researcher asks, What specifically about these behaviors might be associated with diseasefi
The differential diagnosis includes oral lesions of Treatment is generally not required quad spasms cheap 2 mg tizanidine visa. Fissured Tongue Hairy Tongue Fissured or scrotal tongue is a common developHairy tongue is a relatively common disorder that mental malformation of unknown cause and is due to kidney spasms causes cheap 2 mg tizanidine free shipping hypertrophy and elongation of the filipathogenesis muscle relaxant vs analgesic buy tizanidine 2mg lowest price. The cause is obscure muscle relaxant benzodiazepines buy tizanidine 2mg cheap, although the concept that fissured and geographic tongues several predisposing factors have been incrimiare inherited disorders with a common polygenic nated, such as oral antibiotics oxidizing agents, mode of transmission. Clinically, fissured tongue metronidazole, excessive smoking, radiation, is characterized by multiple fissures or grooves on emotional stress, poor oral hygiene, and C. The fissures may hypertrophy and elongation of the filiform papilvary in depth, size, and number and usually have a lae of the dorsum of the tongue, which take on a symmetrical distribution. The color of the filiform papiltomatic, although food debris, microorganisms, lae may be yellowish-white, brown, or black when and fungi may be retained in the deeper fissures pigment-producing bacteria colonize the elonand may cause mild local irritation. The disorder is usually asymptomatic although Fissured tongue may coexist with geographic the excessive length of the papillae may cause an tongue and is one of the clinical diagnostic criteria unpleasant feeling in the mouth, resulting in gagof Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. In cases of extreme papillary elongation, topical use of keratolytic agents (such as salicylic acid in alcohol, podophyllin in alcohol, trichloroacetic acid) may be helpful. Diseases of the Tongue Furred Tongue Glossodynia Furred tongue is a relatively uncommon disorder Glossodynia, or glossopyrosis is not a specific of healthy individuals. It is common in febrile disease entity but a symptom of burning sensation illnesses, particularly in cases with oral painful of the tongue. Dehydration ity glossodynia represents a manifestation of an and soft diet are also predisposing factors. The underlying psychologic problem with no clinically cause is not well understood. Other common causes are canfeatures of the lesion are the lengthening of the didosis, iron deficiency anemia, pernicious filiform papillae, no more than 3 4 mm, and anemia, geographic tongue, lichen planus, xeroaccumulation of debris and bacteria in cases with stomia, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, allergic poor oral hygiene. In glossodynia of psychologic origin, sents as a white or whitish-yellow thick coating on the tongue is usually normal, although slight the dorsal surface of the tongue (Fig. The patient complains of a burning sensation or itching, usually at the tip and the the differential diagnosis includes hairy tongue, lateral borders of the tongue. Similar symptoms pseudomembranous candidosis, and hairy leukomay appear at any area of the oral cavity. Treatment of underlying illnesses and cerophobia, shows remissions and exacerbations, good oral hygiene. There is no specific treatment, although various antidepressant drugs have been Plasma Cell Glossitis used successfully. Plasma cell glossitis is a rare disorder characterized by diffuse or localized erythema of the tongue, which exhibits plasma cell infiltration on histopathologic examination (Fig. The cause of the disease is unknown, although several predisposing factors, such as allergic reactions, endocrine disorders, and C. Plasma cell glossitis may persist for a prolonged period and may be accompanied by a burning sensation. Similar lesions may appear on the gingiva, lips, and other areas of the oral mucosa. The differential diagnosis includes geographic tongue, allergic reactions, and candidosis. Glossodynia, slight erythema and mild elongation of fungiform papillae at the tip of the tongue. Diseases of the Tongue Crenated Tongue Hypertrophy of Circumvallate Papillae Crenated tongue consists of shallow impressions the circumvallate papillae are located on the poson the lateral margins of the tongue due to the terior aspect of the dorsum of the tongue. The mucosa is usuare 8 to 12 in number arranged in a V-shaped ally normal in appearance but may occasionally be pattern. Hypertrophy of the circumvallate papilred if there is intense friction or pressure against lae results in red, well-circumscribed raised the teeth. Myxedema, acromegaly, amyloidosis, and lipoid proteinosis are diseases that may cause macroglossia and subsequently crenated tongue. Hypertrophy of Foliate Papillae the foliate papillae are localized in the posterior lateral borders of the tongue and may be rudimentary in size or they may appear as large protruding nodules. They may become inflamed and enlarged in response to local chronic irritation or infection (Fig. The patient may complain of a burning sensation and frequently be alarmed by the enlarged papillae, fearing a cancer. Diseases of the Tongue Hypertrophy of the Fungiform Papillae Sublingual Varices the fungiform papillae appear as multiple small In persons more than 60 years of age varicosities round red nodules along the anterior portion of of the sublingual veins are common. Sublingual varices are benign and they are usually Excessive smoking, alcohol consumption, hot discovered accidentally by the patient. Diseases of the Lips Median Lip Fissure Characteristically, the lesions do not extend beyond the mucocutaneous border. A burning senMedian lip fissure is a relatively rare disorder that sation and feeling of dryness may occur. Unmay appear in both lower and upper lips and is treated, angular cheilitis may last for a long time, more common in males than females. Recently, a hereditary predisposiActinic cheilitis may occur as an acute or chronic tion has been proposed. Chronic actinic cheilitis is observed in sents as a deep inflammatory, persistent vertical older persons as a result of long-standing exposure fissure at the middle of the lip, usually infected by to sunlight (such as farmers, seamen) and characbacteria and Candida albicans (Fig. In persissively, the epithelium becomes thin, atrophic with tent severe cases, surgical excision with plastic small whitish-gray areas intermingled with red reconstruction is recommended. There is an increased risk of development of Angular Cheilitis leukoplakia and squamous cell carcinoma. Angular cheilitis, or perleche, is a disorder of the the differential diagnosis should include lupus lips caused by several factors, such as riboflavin erythematosus, lichen planus, contact cheilitis, deficiency, iron deficiency anemia, Plummer-Vinleukoplakia, and squamous cell carcinoma. Histopathologic examination is many cases are due to loss of proper vertical essential to exclude cancer. In such cases, a fold is formed at the angles fluorouracil, and, in severe cases, surgical excision of the mouth in which saliva continuously moisof the involved areas of the lip. It has been shown that microorganisms, such as Candida albicans, Streptococci, Staphylococci, and others may superimpose or cause angular cheilitis. Clinically, the condition is characterized by maceration, fissuring, erythema with erosions, and crusting at the commissures (Fig. Diseases of the Lips Exfoliative Cheilitis Cheilitis Glandularis Exfoliative cheilitis is a chronic inflammatory disCheilitis glandularis is an uncommon chronic order of the vermilion border of the lips, which is inflammatory disorder involving chiefly the lower characterized by the persistent formation of scales lip. Emotional stress women with emotional stress and may coexist with and chronic exposure to sunlight have also been atopy. Clinically, it consists of enlargement may become aggravated by cold or very hot of the lip due to minor salivary gland hyperplasia weather. Clinically, exfoliative cheilitis consists of and chronic inflammatory infiltration (Fig. This pattern is repetitive, resulting in thickopenings from which mucus or mucopustular fluid ening, scaling, and crusting of one or both lips may be expressed on pressure. The last two forms are a result of the differential diagnosis includes contact cheilitis microbial infection and the clinical signs and and actinic cheilitis. Topical moistening agents (such as the differential diagnosis includes cheilitis cocoa butter) and topical steroids may be helpful. Histopathologic examination is Contact Cheilitis essential in establishing the diagnosis. The most common causes that have been incriminated are lipsticks, lip salves, dentrifices, mouthwashes, foods, etc. Clinically, contact cheilitis is characterized by mild edema and erythema, followed by irritation and scaling (Fig. The differential diagnosis includes exfoliative cheilitis, and plasma cell cheilitis. Treatment consists of discontinuing all contact with the offending substance and use of topical steroids. Clinically, it is characterized by diffuse redbelieved to be a monosymptomatic form of the ness with slight swelling of the vermilion border of Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. Similar lesions have been cheilitis granulomatosa is characterized by paindescribed on the gingiva and the tongue. This less, diffuse swelling, frequently of the lower lip group of lesions is identical to plasma cell balanitis and rarely the upper lip or both (Fig.
In all such instances muscle relaxant gabapentin cheap tizanidine 2 mg overnight delivery, the environmental measures spasms coughing buy 2 mg tizanidine free shipping, either as an integral part of primary health care or undertaken outside the health sector muscle relaxants order tizanidine mastercard, form an indispensable component of overall disease control strategies muscle spasms zyprexa cheap tizanidine master card, together with health and hygiene education, and in some cases, are the only component. While direct health costs will be substantial, they will be dwarfed by the indirect costs of the pandemic mainly costs associated with the loss of income and decreased productivity of the workforce. The pandemic will inhibit growth of the service and industrial sectors and significantly increase the costs of human capacity-building and retraining. The agricultural sector is particularly affected where production is labour-intensive. Goals (including but not limited to those listed below) are recommended for implementation by all countries where they are applicable, with appropriate adaptation to the specific situation of each country in terms of phasing, standards, priorities and availability of resources, with respect for cultural, religious and social aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and taking into account ethical considerations. By the year 2000, to effectively control onchocerciasis (river blindness) and leprosy; d. By 1995, to reduce measles deaths by 95 per cent and reduce measles cases by 90 per cent compared with pre-immunization levels;. By continued efforts, to provide health and hygiene education and to ensure universal access to safe drinking water and universal access to sanitary measures of excreta disposal, thereby markedly reducing waterborne diseases such as cholera and schistosomiasis and reducing: i. By the year 2000, the number of deaths from childhood diarrhoea in developing countries by 50 to 70 per cent; ii. By the year 2000, the incidence of childhood diarrhoea in developing countries by at least 25 to 50 per cent; f. By the year 2000, to initiate comprehensive programmes to reduce mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under five years by at least one third, particularly in countries with high infant mortality; g. By the year 2000, to institute anti-malaria programmes in all countries where malaria presents a significant health problem and maintain the transmission-free status of areas freed from endemic malaria; i. By the year 2000, to implement control programmes in countries where major human parasitic infections are endemic and achieve an overall reduction in the prevalence of schistosomiasis and of other trematode infections by 40 per cent and 25 per cent, respectively, from a 1984 baseline, as well as a marked reduction in incidence, prevalence and intensity of filarial infections; j. To contain the resurgence of tuberculosis, with particular emphasis on multiple antibiotic resistant forms; l. To accelerate research on improved vaccines and implement to the fullest extent possible the use of vaccines in the prevention of disease. Each national Government, in accordance with national plans for public health, priorities and objectives, should consider developing a national health action plan with appropriate international assistance and support, including, at a minimum, the following components: a. Programmes to identify environmental hazards in the causation of communicable diseases; ii. Monitoring systems of epidemiological data to ensure adequate forecasting of the introduction, spread or aggravation of communicable diseases; iii. Public information and health education: Provide education and disseminate information on the risks of endemic communicable diseases and build awareness on environmental methods for control of communicable diseases to enable communities to play a role in the control of communicable diseases; c. Second experienced health professionals to relevant sectors, such as planning, housing and agriculture; ii. Develop guidelines for effective coordination in the areas of professional training, assessment of risks and development of control technology; d. Control of environmental factors that influence the spread of communicable diseases: Apply methods for the prevention and control of communicable diseases, including water supply and sanitation control, water pollution control, food quality control, integrated vector control, garbage collection and disposal and environmentally sound irrigation practices;. Strengthen prevention programmes, with particular emphasis on adequate and balanced nutrition; ii. Strengthen early diagnostic programmes and improve capacities for early preventative/treatment action; iii. Intensify and expand multidisciplinary research, including focused efforts on the mitigation and environmental control of tropical diseases; ii. Carry out intervention studies to provide a solid epidemiological basis for control policies and to evaluate the efficiency of alternative approaches; iii. Undertake studies in the population and among health workers to determine the influence of cultural, behavioural and social factors on control policies; g. Promote studies to determine how to optimally disseminate results from research; iii. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $4 billion, including about $900 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. Efforts to prevent and control diseases should include investigations of the epidemiological, social and economic bases for the development of more effective national strategies for the integrated control of communicable diseases. Cost-effective methods of environmental control should be adapted to local developmental conditions. National and regional training institutions should promote broad intersectoral approaches to prevention and control of communicable diseases, including training in epidemiology and community prevention and control, immunology, molecular biology and the application of new vaccines. Health education materials should be developed for use by community workers and for the education of mothers for the prevention and treatment of diarrhoeal diseases in the home. The health sector should develop adequate data on the distribution of communicable diseases, as well as the institutional capacity to respond and collaborate with other sectors for prevention, mitigation and correction of communicable disease hazards through environmental protection. The advocacy at policyand decision-making levels should be gained, professional and societal support mobilized, and communities organized in developing self-reliance. In addition to meeting basic health needs, specific emphasis has to be given to protecting and educating vulnerable groups, particularly infants, youth, women, indigenous people and the very poor as a prerequisite for sustainable development. Special attention should also be paid to the health needs of the elderly and disabled population. At least 15 million of these children die annually from such preventable causes as birth trauma, birth asphyxia, acute respiratory infections, malnutrition, communicable diseases and diarrhoea. The health of children is affected more severely than other population groups by malnutrition and adverse environmental factors, and many children risk exploitation as cheap labour or in prostitution. As has been the historical experience of all countries, youth are particularly vulnerable to the problems associated with economic development, which often weakens traditional forms of social support essential for the healthy development, of young people. Currently more than half of all people alive are under the age of 25, and four of every five live in developing countries. In developing countries, the health status of women remains relatively low, and during the 1980s poverty, malnutrition and general ill-health in women were even rising. Most women in developing countries still do not have adequate basic educational opportunities and they lack the means of promoting their health, responsibly controlling their reproductive life and improving their socio-economic status. Particular attention should be given to the provision of pre-natal care to ensure healthy babies. Indigenous people had their communities make up a significant percentage of global population. The outcomes of their experience have tended to be very similar in that the basis of their relationship with traditional lands has been fundamentally changed. They tend to feature disproportionately in unemployment, lack of housing, poverty and poor health. In many countries the number of indigenous people is growing faster than the general population. The general objectives of protecting vulnerable groups are to ensure that all such individuals should be allowed to develop to their full potential (including healthy physical, mental and spiritual development); to ensure t hat young people can develop, establish and maintain healthy lives; to allow women to perform their key role in society; and to support indigenous people through educational, economic and technical opportunities. Specific major goals for child survival, development and protection were agreed upon at the World Summit for Children and remain valid also for Agenda 21. Governments should take active steps to implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordance with country specific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensure that women and men have the same right to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to the information, education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise this right in keeping with their freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical and cultural considerations. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to establish and strengthen preventive and curative health facilities which include women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible planning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and taking into account ethical and cultural considerations. National Governments, in cooperation with local and non-governmental organizations, should initiate or enhance programmes in the following areas: a. Strengthen basic health-care services for children in the context of primary healthcare delivery, including prenatal care, breast-feeding, immunization and nutrition programmes; ii. Undertake widespread adult education on the use of oral rehydration therapy for diarrhoea, treatment of respiratory infections and prevention of communicable diseases; iii. Promote the creation, amendment and enforcement of a legal framework protecting children from sexual and workplace exploitation; iv. Protect children from the effects of environmental and occupational toxic compounds; b. Youth: Strengthen services for youth in health, education and social sectors in order to provide better information, education, counselling and treatment for specific health problems, including drug abuse; c. Provide concrete incentives to encourage and maintain attendance of women of all ages at school and adult education courses, including health education and training in primary, home and maternal health care; iii. Carry out baseline surveys and knowledge, attitude and practice studies on the health and nutrition of women throughout their life cycle, especially as related to the impact of environmental degradation and adequate resources; d.
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