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Hurricane intensity and rainfall are projected (drowning) to treatment of gout generic leflunomide 10mg without prescription increase as the climate continues to treatment zoster ophthalmicus discount 10mg leflunomide otc warm [Medium Flooding Related to medications on nclex rn order 20mg leflunomide with mastercard • Mental health impacts Confdence] treatment narcolepsy 20 mg leflunomide with amex. Extreme Precipitation, • Preterm birth and low birth weight Increasing severity and frequency of fooding have been Hurricanes, Coastal • Infrastructure disruptions and observed throughout much of the Mississippi and Missouri Storms post-event disease spread River Basins. Increased food frequency and severity are projected in the Northeast and Midwest regions [Low • Carbon monoxide poisoning Confdence]. In the Western United States, increasing related to power outages snowmelt and rain-on-snow events (increased runoff when rain falls onto existing snowpack) will increase fooding in some mountain watersheds [Medium Confdence]. In the next several decades, storm surges and high tides could combine with sea level rise and land subsidence to further increase coastal fooding in many regions. Droughts in the Southwest are projected to reduced air quality become more intense [High Confdence]. Wildfres • Asthma exacerbations Rising temperatures and hotter, drier summers are projected • Mental health impacts to increase the frequency and intensity of large wildfres, particularly in the western United States and Alaska. Future trends in severe storms, Severe Thunderstorms including the intensity and frequency of tornadoes, hail, and • Hypothermia and frostbite damaging thunderstorm winds, are uncertain and are being • Mental health impacts studied intensively [Low Confdence]. Key factors that infuence health outcomes and vulnerability at larger community or societal scales, such as natural and built environments, governance and management, and institutions, are shown in the left box. Instead, this chapter focuses on explaining the Exposure is contact between a person and one or more biophysical processes and pathways that scientsts know contribute logical, psychosocial, chemical, or physical stressors, including to human exposure and identfying overarching conclusions restressors afected by climate change. Contact may occur in a garding the risk of adverse health impacts as a result of changsingle instance or repeatedly over tme, and may occur in one ing extreme weather and climate. For example, since 1970, coastal populaton the severity and extent of health efects associated with exgrowth (39%) has substantally increased compared to populatreme events depend on the physical impacts of the extreme ton growth for the United States as a whole (about 13%). This complex set of factors can moderate or storm surge events for a greater proporton of the U. Vulnerability is the tenuals and governments can reduce or increase some exposure dency or predispositon to be adversely afected by climate-rerisk to extreme events. It encompasses three elements—expocan include whether to build or allow development in foodsure, sensitvity, and adaptve capacity—that also interact plains and coastal areas subject to extreme high tdes and with and are infuenced by the social determinants of health sea level rise. Factors such as income have been linked to how people perceive the risks to which they are exposed and choose U. The conditon of the built environ5 ment also afects exposure to extreme events, and those living in low-quality, poorly maintained, or high-density housing may have greater risks of health impacts. For example, older adults (generally defned as age 65 and older) are physiologically more sensitve Family affected by Hurricane Sandy prepares to take shelter in to health impacts from extreme events because of normal Morristown, New Jersey, October 31, 2012. Having strong building resilience in the context adaptve capacity contributes to Having strong adaptive capacity contributes of extreme events and climate resilience—the ability to prepare change. Poverty is a key risk factor, and the poor are disproporthat could overwhelm the U. Serious health risks can arise from infrastructure contribute to lower adaptve capacity include their age (very and housing damage and disrupton or loss of access to electricyoung or very old) and associated dependency on caregivers, ity, sanitaton, safe food and water supplies, health care, comU. Populatons considered especially vulnerable to the health impacts of power outages include older adults, Health Risks Related to Infrastructure young children, those reliant on electrically powered medical Existng infrastructure is generally designed to perform at its equipment like ventlators and oxygen, those with preexistng engineered capacity assuming historical weather paterns, and health conditons, and those with disabilites (see Ch. Coastal There is potental for post-food mold and fungi growth inside foods can destroy buildings and infrastructure, houses to worsen allergic and asthmatc symptoms, but these cause severe coastal erosion, and submerge large types of health impacts have not been documented following areas of the coast. Flash foods develop within minutes or Cascading Failures hours after a rainfall event, and can result in severe damage and loss of life due to high water velocity, Many infrastructure systems are reliant on one another, heavy debris load, and limited warning. This risk to interconnected systems has been partcularly notable in the context of urban Hurricanes, and Coastal Storms areas (especially cites for which the design or maintenance Floods are the primary health hazard associated with extreme of critcal infrastructure needs improvement) and industrial precipitaton events, hurricanes, and coastal storms. Risk of sites containing chemicals or hazardous materials that rely exposure to foods varies by region in the United States and on specifc equipment—such as holding tanks, pipelines, and by type of fooding that occurs in that locaton (see Table 1 electricity-dependent safety mechanisms like automatc shutand “Flood Terminology”). During this 31-hour event, from 2006 to 2012 and were associated with more deaths and lack of electricity compromised trafc control, health care and injuries in rural areas compared to urban areas. Katrina was a very large and powerful Category 3 storm that hit the Gulf Coast region in 2005. Hurricane Katrina was responsible for almost half of the hurricane-related deaths over the past 50 years,79 Hurricane-Induced Flood Effects in Eastern and Central United States with the majority of deaths directly related to the storm in Louisiana (an estmated 971 to 1,300 deaths) due to drowning or food-related physical trauma due to the failure of the levees in New Orleans. Superstorm Sandy is estmated to have caused between 117 and 147 direct deaths across the Atlantc basin, also with drowning and food-related physical trauma as the leading cause of death. Common food-related injuries include blunt trauma from falling debris or objects moving Figure 3: Composite map of foods associated with landfalling quickly in foodwater, electrocuton, falls, and motor vehicle hurricanes over the past 31 years, based on stream gauge data. The dark gray areas of the map represent In the United States, populatons with greater vulnerability to the extent of the 500-km buffer around the center of circulation food-related injuries and illnesses include older adults, the of the hurricanes included during the study period (the light gray areas of the map fall outside of the study area). Land use/land cover properties and soil moisture conditions are also important factors for fooding. First responders and other emergency1 several localized variables, such as characteristcs of the built workers face greater health and safety risks when working in environment, loss of livelihoods, local demand for water, and conditons with infrastructure disruptons, communicaton changes in ecosystems. In additon, health imPregnant women and newborns are uniquely vulnerable to pacts do not occur in isolaton. Flood exposure was associated with heat waves by reducing evaporatve cooling,2 further compliadverse birth outcomes (preterm birth, low birth weight) afer catng eforts to atribute specifc health outcomes to specifc Hurricane Katrina and the 1997 foods in North Dakota. Floods and storms can also create conditons in which children can become separated from their parents or caregivers, A primary health implicaton of drought arises from the which—partcularly for children with disabilites or special contaminaton and depleton of water sources,95 but there health care needs—increases their vulnerability to a range of are few studies documentng specifc health consequences health threats, including death, injury, disease, psychological in the United States. In some regions of the United States, drought has been associated with increased incidence of West Nile virus disease. Health implications of drought include contamination and depletion of water sources. In part, this is because observations are generally unavailable in areas where dust exposure is greatest, including drylands and agricultural areas. People generally become infected by breathing in fungal spores directly from the environment or having spores enter the skin at sites of injury. Coccidioidomycosis, also called “Valley Fever,” is an infection caused by Coccidioides, a fungus found mainly in the southwestern United States. Exposure to fne partcles is associated with cardiovascular illness (for example, heart atacks and strokes) and premature death, and is likely associated with adverse respiratory efects. For example, during the 2007 San of red indicated that up to a 6-fold increase in risk is projected for parts of the West. This area includes the Great Basin, Northern Diego wildfres, health monitoring showed excess emergency Rockies, and parts of Northern California. During tmes of peak fre partculate mater concentraor insuffcient historical observations on very large fres to build tons, the odds of a person seeking emergency care increased robust models. The potential for very large fre events is also 164 by 50% when compared to non-fre conditons. Smoke from expected to increase along the southern coastline and in areas around the Great Lakes. For example, and injuries due to treacherous road conditons and impaired wildfres near populated areas ofen necessitate large evacudriving visibility. This is especially true ton with a changing climate are increasing the vulnerability of of thunderstorms associated with tornadoes, as the afermath these areas to wildfres. However, few comprehensive or systematc studies have the potental to change water quality, quantty, availability, examined the human health impacts of such health-system and treatability downstream from the burned area. Current understanding is limited by a lack of systematc surveillance for the range of health impacts, both short and long term, associated with a wider range of extreme events, including prolonged events like droughts and other extremes that do not currently trigger post-event health surveillance. Future assessments can beneft from multdisciplinary research actvites that: • beter defne the health implicatons associated with partcular extreme events where longer-term impacts, as well as regional diferences in health outcomes, are currently not well understood, such as droughts and foods; • enhance understanding of how specifc atributes that contribute to individual and community level vulnerability to health impacts afer extreme events, including social and behavioral characteristcs, interact and contribute to or mitgate risks of adverse health outcomes; and • examine how health outcomes can be impacted by other cumulatve, compounding, or secondary efects of extreme events, such as access to or disrupton of healthcare services and damages to and cascading failures of infrastructure. Authors considered inputs and comments for projected increases in the frequency and/or intensity submited by the public, the Natonal Academies of Sciences, of extreme precipitaton, hurricanes, coastal inundaton, and Federal agencies. While many Flooding associated with extreme precipitaton, hurricanes, connectons between changes in extreme events due to and coastal storms is expected to increase in some regions of climate change and human health impacts appear intuitve, in the United States due to climate change, thereby increasing some cases there may not be a robust body of peer-reviewed exposure to a variety of health hazards. For impacts of foods and storms include death, injury, and illness; example, while it is believed that droughts have the ability to exacerbaton of underlying medical conditons; and adverse impact water quality, which could in turn impact health, there efects on mental health. We recognize that 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 173 including exacerbaton of tornadoes can cause signifcant infrastructure damage underlying medical conditons. Climate change related projectons of winter storms and adverse efects on mental health [High Confdence]. Climate change will increase exposure risk in some regions of the severe storms, including tornadoes, hail, and thunderstorms, United States due to projected increases in the frequency are stll uncertain. There is strong, the four categories of extreme events addressed in this consistent evidence from multple studies that infrastructure chapter. Relevant health surveillance and epidemiological can either exacerbate or moderate the physical impacts of data for extreme events are limited by underreportng, extreme events, infuencing the ultmate nature and severity underestmaton, and lack of a common defniton of what of health impacts. Projectons of increasing frequency and/ consttutes an adverse health impact from an extreme or intensity of some extreme events suggest that they event.
Unfortumined by blood and dialysate fiow through the dialyzer nately medications januvia purchase leflunomide 20 mg amex, even when created treatment 5th disease cheap 20 mg leflunomide otc, arteriovenous fistulas may not as well as dialyzer characteristics medicine technology cheap leflunomide 20 mg on-line. The dose of dialysis medicine 751 leflunomide 10 mg low price, which is currently lation, or they may thrombose early in their development. Grafts and catheters tend to be used among persons Since the landmark studies of Sargent and Gotch with smaller-caliber veins, persons whose veins have been relating the measurement of the dose of dialysis using damaged by repeated venipuncture, or after prolonged urea concentrations with morbidity in the National hospitalization. The most important complication of Cooperative Dialysis Study, the delivered dose of dialysis arteriovenous grafts is thrombosis of the graft and graft has been measured and considered as a quality assurance failure principally because of intimal hyperplasia at the and improvement tool. Still, multiple observational studies and wideaccess failure, grafts and (in particular) catheters are assospread expert opinion have suggested that a higher dialciated with much higher rates of infection than fistulas. Several studies have lower infection rate than with nontunneled temporary suggested that longer hemodialysis session lengths may catheters. Most tunneled catheters are placed in the interbe beneficial, although these studies are confounded by nal jugular veins; the external jugular, femoral, and subclaa variety of patient characteristics, including body size and vian veins may also be used. The hemodialysis “dose” should be radiologists, and vascular surgeons generally prefer to avoid individualized, and factors other than the urea nitrogen placement of catheters into the subclavian veins because should be considered, including the adequacy of ultrafilalthough fiow rates are usually excellent, subclavian stenotration or fiuid removal. Several authors have highsis is a frequent complication and, if present, will likely lighted improved intermediate outcomes associated with prohibit permanent vascular access. Infection rates may be higher although these studies are also confounded by multiple with femoral catheters. A randomized clinical trial is currently underway access complications and no other options for permanent to test whether more frequent dialysis results in differvascular access, tunneled catheters may be the last “lifeline” ences in a variety of physiologic and functional markers. Hypotension is the most common acute complication of hemodialysis, particularly among patients with diabetes. The procedure or autonomic responses, osmolar shifts, overzealous use 390 of antihypertensive agents, and reduced cardiac reserve. The underlying cause of high-output cardiac failure because of shunting of blood cardiovascular disease is unclear but may be related to through the dialysis access;on rare occasions,this may necesshared risk factors. Because of the vasodilainfiammation, massive changes in extracellular volume tory and cardiodepressive effects of acetate, its use as the (especially with high interdialytic weight gains), inadebuffer in dialysate was once a common cause of hypotenquate treatment of hypertension, dyslipidemia, anemia, sion. However, since the introduction of bicarbonatedystrophic vascular calcification, hyperhomocysteinemia, containing dialysate, dialysis-associated hypotension has and perhaps alterations in cardiovascular dynamics during become less common. Nevertheless, most experts of 23% saturated hypertonic saline, and administration of recommend conventional cardioprotective strategies. Hypotension during dialysis can frelipid-lowering agents, aspirin, fi-adrenergic antagonists) quently be prevented by careful evaluation of the dry in dialysis patients based on the individual patient’s carweight and by ultrafiltration modeling, such that more diovascular risk profile, which appears to be increased by fiuid is removed at the beginning rather than the end of more than an order of magnitude relative to persons the dialysis procedure. The cause of dialysis-associated to dwell for a set period of time, usually 2–4 h. Changes in muscle perfusion hemodialysis, toxic materials are removed through a because of excessively aggressive volume removal, particucombination of convective clearance generated through larly below the estimated dry weight, and the use of ultrafiltration and diffusive clearance down a concentralow-sodium–containing dialysate, have been proposed as tion gradient. The clearance of solutes and water during precipitants of dialysis-associated cramps. Strategies that a peritoneal dialysis exchange depends on the balance may be used to prevent cramps include reducing volume between the movement of solute and water into the removal during dialysis, ultrafiltration profiling, and using peritoneal cavity versus absorption from the peritoneal higher concentrations of sodium in the dialysate or cavity. Absorption of solutes and water on its first use, have been reported most frequently with from the peritoneal cavity occurs across the peritoneal the bioincompatible cellulosic-containing membranes. Dialyzer reactions can be patient to patient and may be altered by the presence of divided into two types, A and B. Type A reactions are infection (peritonitis), drugs, and physical factors such as attributed to an IgE-mediated intermediate hypersensiposition and exercise. These symptoms typically occur several minutes instilled at bedtime and remains in the peritoneal cavity into the dialysis run and typically resolve over time with through the night. Cardiovascular mortality formed in an automated fashion, usually at night; the and event rates are higher in dialysis patients than in patient is connected to an automated cycler that performs a series of exchange cycles while the patient sleeps. The complications with a relatively large increment in urea 391 number of exchange cycles required to optimize periclearance. In general, patients on peritoneal dialysis do toneal solute clearance varies by the peritoneal membrane well when they retain residual kidney function. The characteristics; as with hemodialysis, experts suggest careful rates of technique failure increase with years on dialysis tracking of solute clearances to ensure dialysis “adequacy. Recently, a nonabsorbable carbohydrate (icodexferred buffer in peritoneal dialysis solutions. The most trin) has been introduced as an alternative osmotic common additives to peritoneal dialysis solutions are agent. Studies have demonstrated more efficient ultrafilheparin to prevent obstruction of the dialysis catheter tration with icodextrin than with dextrose-containing lumen with fibrin and antibiotics during an episode of solutions. Although this approach Access to the peritoneal cavity is obtained through a can enhance solute clearance and prolong a patient’s peritoneal catheter. Catheters used for maintenance capacity to remain on peritoneal dialysis, the burden of peritoneal dialysis are fiexible, being made of silicon the hybrid approach can be overwhelming to some. The scarring that occurs around the cuffs anchors the catheter and seals it from bacteria tracking from the the major complications of peritoneal dialysis are periskin surface into the peritoneal cavity; it also prevents tonitis, catheter-associated nonperitonitis infections, the external leakage of fiuid from the peritoneal cavity. The peritoneal equilibrium test is a formal evaluation of Peritonitis typically develops when there has been a peritoneal membrane characteristics that measures the break in sterile technique during one or more of the transfer rates of creatinine and glucose across the peritoneal exchange procedures. Patients are classified as low, low-average, highelevated peritoneal fiuid leukocyte count (100/mm3,of average, and high “transporters. The most common culprit organisms are quantities of albumin and other proteins across the perigram-positive cocci, including Staphylococcus, refiecting toneal membrane. Gram-negative rod infections porting characteristics require more frequent, shorter dwell are less common; fungal and mycobacterial infections time exchanges, nearly always obligating use of a cycler are seen in selected patients, particularly after antibacterfor feasibility. The efficiency of either with intraperitoneal or oral antibiotics, depending solute clearance also depends on the volume of dialysate on the organism; many patients with peritonitis do not infused. Interestingly, solute or yeast, antimicrobial therapy is usually not sufficient, and clearance also increases with physical activity, presumably catheter removal is required to ensure complete eradicarelated to more efficient fiow dynamics within the perition of infection. Several observational studies have otic or silver nitrate administration, but others are severe suggested that higher rates of urea and creatinine clearance enough to require parenteral antibiotic therapy and (the latter generally measured in L/week) are associated catheter removal. As noted above, albumin and failed to show a significant reduction in mortality or other proteins can be lost across the peritoneal membrane 392 in concert with the loss of metabolic wastes. Total body water is distributed in certain situations, brain cells can vary the number of in two major compartments: 55–75% is intracellular intracellular solutes to defend against large water shifts. The converse occurs during chronic hyperlar solutes or osmoles are markedly different because of natremia. Certain solutes, such as urea, do not contribute disparities in permeability and the presence of transto water shift across cell membranes and are known as porters and active pumps. An increase or decrease in ment of plasma ultrafiltrate into the extravascular space. Disorders the hemodynamic response is mediated by barorecepof water homeostasis result in hypoor hypernatremia. The sensitivity of these receptors Normal individuals have an obligate water loss consisting is significantly lower than that of the osmoreceptors. In of urine, stool, and evaporation from the skin and respirafact, depletion of blood volume sufficient to result in a tory tract. Evaporative or insensitive water losses are important in To maintain homeostasis and a normal plasma Na+ the regulation of core body temperature. Obligatory renal concentration, the ingestion of solute-free water must water loss is mandated by the minimum solute excretion eventually lead to the loss of the same volume of required to maintain a steady state. Three steps are required for the mosmol must be excreted per day, and because the maxikidney to excrete a water load: (1) filtration and delivmal urine osmolality is 1200 mosmol/kg, a minimum ery of water (and electrolytes) to the diluting sites of urine output of 500 mL/d is required for neutral solute the nephron; (2) active reabsorption of Na+ and Clfi balance. Osmoreceptors, located in can result in impaired free-water excretion and eventual the anterolateral hypothalamus, are stimulated by an hyponatremia. Ineffective osmoles, such as urea and glucose, do not play a role in stimulating thirst. The averSodium Balance age osmotic threshold for thirst is fi295 mosmol/kg and Sodium is actively pumped out of cells by the Na+,K-+ varies among individuals. As a result, 85–90% of all Na+ is extracelludaily water intake exceeds physiologic requirements. Normal volume regulatory mechanisms ensure In contrast to the ingestion of water, its excretion is that Na+ loss balances Na+ gain. The principal conditions of Na+ excess or deficit ensue and are manifest determinant of renal water excretion is arginine vasoas edematous or hypovolemic states, respectively. The net effect is passive water Individuals eating a typical Western diet consume reabsorption along an osmotic gradient from the lumen approximately 150 mmol of NaCl daily.
Differences in Epidemiology medicine xalatan leflunomide 20mg fast delivery, Histology and Survival Between Cigarette Smokers and Never-Smokers Who Develop Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer medicine x boston generic leflunomide 10 mg fast delivery. Epidemiologic Notes and Reports Expanded Tuberculosis Surveillance and Tuberculosis Morbidity—United States medications bad for liver discount leflunomide 20mg with amex, 1993 medications for ibs purchase 20 mg leflunomide otc. Emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with Extensive Resistance to Second-Line Drugs—Worldwide, 2000-2004. Comparison of T-cell-based Assay with Tuberculin Skin Test for Diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in a School Tuberculosis Outbreak. Statement to Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions, October 30, 2007. Domestic Returns from the Investment in the Control of Tuberculosis in Other Countries. Lung diseases and breathing problems are the primary causes of infant deaths in the United States today. Lung disease death rates continue to increase while other major causes of death have declined. The American Lung Association has long funded vital research to discover the causes and seek improved treatments for those suffering with lung disease. We are the foremost defender of the Clean Air Act and laws that protect citizens from secondhand smoke. The Lung Association teaches children the dangers of tobacco use and helps teenage and adult smokers overcome addiction. We help children and adults living with lung disease to improve their quality of life. With your generous support, the American Lung Association is “Improving life, one breath at a time. Before rodenticides are used, acceptance tests should be made to indicate the degree of bait acceptance that can be expected. If bait acceptance is good, most of the bait will be quickly consumed by rodents during a 24-hour period. Too frequent application of acute toxic baits, like zinc phosphide, may cause bait and poison shyness. Unlike insecticides, which are generally applied to the crop itself, rodent baits are commonly placed in rodent burrows or applied to trails or areas where rodents naturally feed. Rodent baits should not be applied in any manner that will contaminate food or feed crops. This would include any application method which would cause the bait to lodge in food plants. Fumigants are applied directly into the rodent burrow and are sealed in by covering the burrow opening with a shovelful of dirt. Identifying Rodents Causing Damage to Crops One of the keys to controlling rodent damage in crops is prompt and accurate determination of which species is causing the damage. To make a positive species identification, survey the area of reported damage and look for signs of rodent activity such as: trails, runs, tracks and tail marks, droppings, burrows, nests and food caches. Also look for cuttings of grass or plant material in trails, runs or near burrow entrances. If trees or shrubs are being girdled note the size of the tooth marks and location of damage. The size of the incisor marks and location of damage may assist in identifying the rodent. Snap traps of an appropriate size are one method used to identify the smaller rodent species damaging a crop. Traps can also assist in determining population densities, obtaining reproductive data, and censoring a rodent population in an area before and after a control program to evaluate the control results. Wild rodents can be reservoir hosts of diseases transmissible to humans, including a frequently lethal strain of Hantavirus. Protective clothing should be worn while trapping, including rubber or plastic gloves and coveralls (or other work clothing). Wear insect repellent, as necessary, in areas with mosquito, flea, and tick problems. Before removing a rodent carcass from a trap, spray the carcass and trap with a general-purpose household disinfectant. To do this, pick-up the carcass and remove it from the V E R T E B R A T E P E S T C O N T R O L H A N D B O O K M A M M A L S trap using an inverted plastic bag; place the carcass and bag into a second bag and seal. Clean traps, surfaces, or other materials that have been contaminated in disinfectant before reusing. Remove gloves and dispose of these in the trash; thoroughly wash hands with soap and water. If live trapping of rodents is necessary, special precautions should be considered. Persons involved with C extensive handling of rodents should have a baseline serum sample drawn (store at 20), preferably at the time of employment. Workers who develop a febrile or respiratory illness within 45 days of the last exposure should seek medical attention immediately and inform the attending physician of the potential occupational risk of rodent-borne infection. Respirators (including positive-pressure types) are not considered protective if facial hair interferes with the face seal, since proper fit cannot be assured. Snap-trapping enables an individual to detect or confirm the presence of mice in crops or adjacent uncultivated grassy area. One hundred baited (wet oatmeal or peanut butter) mouse snap-traps are set approximately 10 feet apart in a transect line across the area to be sampled. The traps are set at locations which will increase likelihood of success (runways or burrows) and are serviced and reset daily for two or three days. Traps should be set at right angles to runways or burrow openings to increase the frequency of catch. A 10% mouse catch per 100-trap-nights provides evidence that some type of control action should be considered. In some situations, action may be implemented when fewer mice are present depending on their propensity for increasing in numbers and causing damage. N O R W A Y R A T S Fifty rat traps baited with peanut butter or nut meats, are set approximately 20 feet apart in a transect line across the area to be sampled. In crops such as rice, corn, or melons, traps may be set along drainage canals or roadside areas. Trap placement should be in locations which will increase likelihood of success (runways or burrows) and are serviced and reset daily for two or three days. Frequency of trap catch is greater when traps are set at right angles to the runways. It is important to identify the species of rat causing the problem prior to control actions. Set rat traps baited with fruit or nut meats in pairs at the base of each tree suspected of being damaged. The roof rat has a tail longer than its body and head combined, and its ears are large and prominent. The tail is shorter than the body and head combined, V E R T E B R A T E P E S T C O N T R O L H A N D B O O K M A M M A L S and the ears are small and close set. Although size and body shape may vary among the many species in western North America, wood rats generally have a bushy or tufted tail and the underparts and feet are lighter than the upper body. Safety Precautions for Rodenticide Use the safe handling, storage and use of rodenticides is the responsibility of the applicator. All containers of bait other than the original labeled container (service container) shall be labeled with the precautionary statement that applies. Toxic baits and concentrates shall be stored in an adequately locked space at all times when not in use. Such space shall be entirely separate from where food or drink for humans or domestic animals is kept stored. All persons handling toxic baits or concentrates should be advised as to: fi the characteristics of these materials. To prevent the accidental bait spillage, containers should be so designed and in such repair that leakage or spillage does not occur. Do not leave containers of bait unattended or where it can be obtained by children, irresponsible persons or animals. Wash hands with soap and water after handling poison baits and before eating or smoking.
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